WOODWORK 

FOR THE 

GRADES 



FRANK HENRY SELDEN 




aass_._r.T.L&S_ 

Book_ . S4r5 . 



Woodwork for the Grades 



FOR USE IN 



Manual Training Classes 



BY 



FRANK HENRY SELDEN 

Director of the Department of Mechanical Science, State Normal School 
Valley City, North Dakota 

Author of the "Selden Series" of 
Texts for Elementary Schools, 
High Schools, Technical Schools 

Fully Illustrated from Actual Shop Practice 



THE MAUDSLAY PRESS 
VALLEY CITY, NORTH DAKOTA 



sV 



Copyrighted by 

Orr & Lockett Hardware Co., 1908 

Frank Henry Selden, 1912 



A-WI 



Publisher's Note 

It is more than three years since the first pages of this text 
were printed. At once they found a place in the school shop 
that demonstrated the wisdom of the publishers in supplying 
a definite text to be studied and depended upon as the basis of 
instruction for work in the wood shop. 

So fully has the value of a definite text in the hands of the 
pupil been demonstrated that it appears to be advisable to 
place before the teachers and pupils a complete series of texts 
in harmony with the principles of Mechanical Science. To 
accomplish this, a somewhat large undertaking, the future 
publication of these works will be in the hands of the author 
thru a business organized under the name of the first student 
and teacher of Mechanical Science, Henry Maudslay, in 
whose shops Whiteworth, Clement, Naysmith and other eminent 
mechanics received the early training that made possible their 
large contributions to the beginnings of modern methods of 
working solid materials. 

It will ever be the aim of the publishers to keep the books 
fully up to the practice of the best schools. An exceptional 
amount of expense has been incurred in procuring the illustra- 
tions, all of which, except a few of those of tools are entirely 
original. This statement appears to be necessary because of 
several other publishers making use of cuts taken from this 
author's texts. 

FRANK HENRY SELDEN. 



Woodwork for the Grades 



Introduction 

This course in woodwork is intended for use by pupils who 
have had no previous experience with wood-working tools. 

It is planned to develop the subject in a systematic manner 
in harmony with well established pedagogic principles. 

The lessons consist of instruction in tool usage, followed 
by a large variety of designs for articles useful in the home. 
The first lessons should be thoroughly mastered so that the 
interest and progress in construction will be genuine and of 
educational value. It is no waste of time or interest to learn 
by use of study pieces the fundamental tool operations. Such 
a plan if properly followed will result not only in far larger 
educational value, but also in deeper interest and a better 
display of finished articles. 

The advantages of using a complete, definite text are beyond 
the belief of those teachers of shop work who depend upon 
oral instruction or the use of reference works. The use of this 
text has not only demonstrated the advisability of using a text 
as a matter of economy of the teacher's time, but has also 
demonstrated that with this text the pupils will accomplish as 
much in the sixth grade as we have heretofore without this aid 
expected of the eighth grade ; while in the eighth grade as 
much value is received as by other means could be gained in 
first year high school. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



NAILS 

There are many kinds of nails, brads and similar fastenings. 
These include common wire nails, cut nails and brads. 

To introduce to you all of the styles and sizes at once 
would only confuse and do more harm than good. The way 
to gain a proper knowledge of these common and useful 
articles is to work with but few sizes until they are familiar, 
then use them as a basis from which to estimate other sizes. 

In your school work you will use 6d wire nails first. 
Examine these nails carefully. Measure them in all ways and 
remember the dimensions. You will soon learn to select a 
6d nail from an assortment of many sizes. 

After you have learned this size you can readily estimate 
the other common sizes by comparison. 

In your first work you are likely to use only 6d, 4d and 
3d nails. If you do any work at home with rough inch boards 
you will likely use lOd nails for the boards and 20d spikes 
for the 2 inch frame-work which is usually required. By 
driving a 6d nail through two Jfa inch pieces and noting 
how much the point extends, you will have a useful and 
easily retained basis of comparison. By driving a 20d spike 
through two 2 inch pieces you will get another dimension to 
work from. Try the lOd nail with two thicknesses of rough 
inch lumber and also a 1-inch and a 2-inch piece. 

After you have learned the sizes of the most common nails 
you should learn to distinguish between nails which are 
made from the common size of wire and those which are made 
from smaller sizes. 



8 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

Boxes are frequently made with nails having a smaller 
diameter than the common wire nails. Hence nails which 
are made from wire below the ordinary size are called box 
nails. A 6d box nail is the same length as a 6d common, but 
is much lighter and has a smaller head, because the wire from 
which it is made is smaller. 

Nails of very small size are made for small work. The 
smaller sizes are sold by length. They are distinguished from 
brads by the shape of the heads. The small nails have the 
same form of head as the larger nails and spikes. 

The brads have small round heads. The reason for this 
difference is that nails are for use where the surface is not to 
be highly finished and therefore the nailhead may be visible, 
or it may be set below the surface and covered with putty. In 
setting a nailhead the wood around the head is usually torn so 
that the surface will not finish to the best advantage. 

The small smooth round heads of the brads do not crush 
the wood so much when they are set. and therefore their heads 
can be covered in a manner to make the holes scarcely 
noticeable.. 

Brads are made in several lengths and each length of 
several sizes of wire. Most hardware dealers have a variety of 
lengths, but usually not more than one or two sizes of wire of 
each length. Your first work will require but a limited variety 
of brads. You will have little if any occasion to use those 
made of the smaller sizes of wire. As a basis for comparison, 
learn the size of a common inch brad so that you can pick one 
from an assortment of brads without measuring it. The x / 2 inch 
and 2 inch are other sizes which it is worth while to learn. 

The driving of nails and brads is a matter of great import- 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



ance. One who knows how to use a hammer properly will 
drive a brad into a bit of hard wood, while one who does not 
know how will fail. 

It is difficult to either show or explain the proper way to 
drive nails, but if you will watch carefully every time you use 
a hammer you soon; will learn how to drive nails. 

In driving nails or brads into hard wood they should be 
rubbed on soap or grease to cause them to drive without 
bending. 

SCREWS AND THEIR USES 

Screws are made in a great variety of shapes and sizes for 
many purposes. For your first work in wood you will have 
occasion to use but two kinds. The flat head wood screw 

shown in Fig. lA 
and the round 
head wocd screw 
shown in Fig. IB 
are sufficient to 
begin with. 

In using a round head wood screw a hole is bored as large 
as the shank — the part on which there is no thread. This 
hole should be as deep as the shank is long. At the bottom 
of this hole is 
sometimes bored 
another for the 
threaded portion 
of the screw. 
The form of bit used in boring these holes is shown in 
Fig. 2A. This is called a gimlet bit. The size of the hole 




Fig. 1A — Flat Head Screw. 




Fig. IB — Round Head Screw. 



10 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

is determined by several conditions. If the wood is very 
hard, the hole should be as large as the thickness of the 
screw at the base of the thread. If the wood is very soft and 
you are provided with a 

good screw driver such «=S^^£- ^ "" 1 "" ""^B^^ 

as is shown in Fig. 2B 

, . ..,, 6 . , Fig. 2A-Gimlet Bit 

no hole will be required. 

You must therefore consider the texture or hardness of the 
wood in determining the size of bit to use. 

Where two pieces are fastened together by screws it is 

usual to bore a hole 
large enough for 
the shank of the 
Fig. 2B— Screw Drive} screw through one 

piece and bore the 
hole for the threaded portion in the other piece without regard 
to length of either part of the screw. 

Often, in manufacturing work, the screw is started with a 
hammer and then finished with a screw driver. This is a good 
way to insert small screws in soft wood. 

In many cases one difficulty is to avoid splitting the pieces, 
which requires careful planning of the sizes of the holes 
bored. 

If grease, not oil, of some kind is used in the holes the 
screws will insert easier and also hold better. The grease 
should be placed in the hole rather than on the screw. Soap 
is often used for this purpose. 

A matter which is often overlooked in inserting screws is 
that if the screw is turned too much it will strip the thread 
formed in the wood and fail to hold properly. It requires a 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 11 

good deal of care to turn the screw just enough to cause it to 
hold the greatest amount. 

Small screws, and especially brass ones, may be twisted in 
two unless a hole of sufficient size is made. 

The flat head wood screw is used in the same manner as 
the round head wood 
screw except that in hard 
wood a conical hole is 
bored to receive the Fig. 2 C— Countersink 

head. The tool used in 

boring these holes is called a countersink and is shown in 
Fig. 2C ? It is used in a bit brace as is a bit. 

In selecting screws the length is given in fractions of an 
inch. The diameter of the shank is given in numbers. The 
number five screw is about }& inch, the number ten about 
3 /U inch and the number eighteen about V™ inch in diameter 
of shank. 

FINISHES 

For the first work in the woodshop you will have need for 
only the most simple finishes. 

The most useful finish, because of what you learn in apply- 
ing it, is white shellac. This is not only a durable finish, but 
it is so transparent that it does not destroy the natural beauty 
of the wood. Several coats of shellac are required to make a 
nice finish. After each coat the surface should be carefully 
sandpapered. For this use the finer grades of sandpaper. 

Articles finished with white shellac can be easily repaired 
if injured. As the wood remains nearly its natural color much 
can be learned by having about the home articles of different 



12 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

woods thus finished. You will become familiar with the 
appearance of the woods and learn to distinguish them. Any 
stain wastes this opportunity of learning the various woods. 

Stains are usually a matter of local sentiment or changing 
fashion and therefore if you treat your school work to some 
coating which may soon go out of style, it will be apt to lose 
its interest. 

The paint stains are the most simple stains to use. They 
are made by using the ordinary paint colors ground in oil. 
These are sold in small tin packages. 

To use stains, select the colors desired, or combine two 
or more of the commercial colors making a shade to suit your- 
self. Thin the color with turpentine. Apply with a common 
paintbrush or cloth. Allow it to dry for a longer or shorter 
time according to the shade of color wanted. Then, with a clean 
cloth, wipe off all except that which is in the grain of the wood. 

After the wiping allow the stain to dry thoroughly. It may 
then be brightened by going over with a cloth and ordinary 
floor or furniture wax. The more waxing and rubbing the 
better. 

There is a large variety of stains on sale by dealers, which 
should be used according to directions furnished by the man- 
ufacturers. 

Varnishing should not be attempted until you can handle 
a brush skilfully and can also prepare the wood in a first class 
manner. It is easy to put varnish on a surface so that to 
the novice it will appear a very fair piece of work; but such 
coatings are certain to result in disappointment in a short time. 
The wiser way for the young woodworker is to let varnish 
entirely alone. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 13 

DESIGN 

The beginner in woodwork usually has enough to do to master 
the problems in tool usage which are essential to successful work. 

Nearly all the designs in this course are capable of a large 
variety of modifications. You should first study the design as 
given. Not simply to fix in mind the shape of the parts, but 
to learn why the parts are shaped in such a manner. Go care- 
fully over every tool operation used in making the object. This 
will usually throw light upon the reasons for the sizes or shapes. 

After you have learned all you can by studying one design 
go carefully over all of the designs of a similar form, or con- 
taining similar parts. 

The details, such as the shapes of edges and the sizes and 
spacing of the small parts, is the last step in studying the designs. 

All the objects given in this course are planned to encour- 
age such a study and if you will carefully go over them in this 
manner you will gain ability to work out problems in design. 
You should be able to work out a new and appropriate design 
from any lesson which you may select. 

The one fact to keep in mind is that designing is not 
guessing, but rather taking known elements and working defin- 
itely into new forms which are within prescribed limits. In 
your first work in wood your design must be limited to such 
materials and tool processes as you are able to use successfully. 

It is not possible to proceed in the same manner with all 
designing, but the following may help to lead you into syste- 
matic methods. 

First — Select the article to be made. Second — Decide 
whether you wish to economize on time in doing the work or 



14 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

to use any amount of time necessary to produce the best 
results. Third — Estimate the amount of cash outlay. Fourth — 
Select the material. (This will be determined not only by 
preferences for certain woods but also by expense and time.) 
Fifth — Compare the general size as compared with the type of 
article selected. (Consider 1 and 2.) Sixth— The chief 
dimension should be determined by the space which the 
object is to occupy or its specific use. A book rack for a 
few large volumes would be higher and narrower than a rack 
for a larger number of small books or perhaps have fewer and 
wider shelves. Seventh — Calculate the thickness of material 
for each part. Eighth — Decide upon the relative size of top 
and bottom. Ninth— Sketch the outline of each part. Tenth-- 
Determine the method of joining. This is decided somewhat 
by the preceding steps in the process. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 15 

LESSON 1 

LUMBER 

This branch of schoolwork is called woodwork. Such wood 
as is used in shopwork is usually called lumber. You already 
know that lumber is made by cutting up trees. The trees are 
cut down by chopping and sawing and are then taken to a mill 
and sawed into lumber. To those who do not understand the 
cutting of trees and the working of them into boards or other 
lumber products the work appears to be very simple and to 
require no very definite knowledge. This, however, is not the 
case, for it really requires a great deal of judgment as 



Fig 3 — Ax 

well as muscular strength. To place the logs in the mill and 
work them so as to get the most and best grades of lumber is 
a matter requiring much knowledge and judgment and a great 
deal of experience. 

The tools used in cutting down the trees are the ax (Fig. 3) 
and the saw (Fig. 4). The saw which is used to fell the tree 
is also used to cut the tree into logs. These saws are usually 
about 6 feet long, have handles at each end and are called 
crosscut saws. 



16 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

After the timber is sawed into boards or other shapes, these 
are taken out of the mill and piled. Sometimes the lumber is 
piled just as it comes from the saw mill, but usually it is sorted 




Fig. 4— Crosscut Saw 

into different lengths, sizes and grades and each kind placed 
in a pile by itself. 

There are a great many different grades of pine. Other 
kinds of trees are not sorted into so many grades as the pine, 
but all are usually sorted before being worked up into building 
material, furniture or other products. 

It is impossible for you to learn at this time all about these 
different kinds of lumber, but if you will examine each piece 
while working it, you soon will understand enough about pine 
and the common cabinet woods to select and purchase stock 
you require for your work. The piece which you have was cut 
from a soft pine tree. The large millsaw leaves the surface of 
the board very rough. This roughness may be removed by 
hand planing, but it is usual to run rough lumber through a 
machine called a surfacer (Fig. 5). Some surfacers dress but 
one side at a time, others dress both sides at once. Some 
machines, called four-sided machines, dress all four sides at 
once. How do you think this piece was dressed? 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



17 




Fig. 5 — Surfacing a Board 



LESSON 2 

INSPECTING MATERIAL 

Hold the piece studied in Lesson 1 to the light and 
observe the little markings across the surface. Sometimes 
these marks are very large and uneven; sometimes they are 
very fine and can scarcely be seen. As they are made by the 
machine they are called machine marks. 



18 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

Sometimes the knives which do the cutting become uneven 
or nicked and then a mark is made lengthwise of the piece. 
Fig. 6 shows two marks lengthwise and the regular fine marks 
crosswise. The piece photographed for the picture was much 
rougher than would be the case were the machine in good condi- 
tion. This piece was selected because if the surface was properly 
smoothed the markings would not be visible in the picture. 

You have nothing to do with these markings except to 
learn to see them, no matter how fine they are, and to remove 
them by using the hand plane. 

No matter how smooth and straight a surface may appear 
when tested by using the try-square and straight-edge, if there 

WWllliiirii!iil:J ! i;:!l!: ,::n !r!il!pii^Hill!h 

■RliUllS? 

Fig. 6 — Piece Showing Machine Marks 

are any machine marks in it, they must be removed before it 
can be considered properly smoothed. After a surface is 
finished with varnish or any similar finish the machine marks 
will show much more clearly than before. Sometimes marks 
which are so fine as not to be noticed before applying the finish 
will show very plainly after varnishing. Because of these 
troubles, which arise from leaving machine marks in the sur- 
faces, you must be very careful to learn in your first lessons 
how to see them and how to remove them. Do not be satisfied 
by looking at the surface in only one direction, but examine 
it by holding it up to the light in several positions, until you 
are certain that all machine marks have been removed. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



19 



LESSON 3 

PLANE 
The tool which is ordinarily used to remove the machine 
marks and true the surfaces of small pieces of lumber is the 
hand-plane shown in Fig. 7, called a smooth-plane. If the 
piece to be 
smoothed were 
larg c r you 
might use a 
plane like the 
one shown in 
Fig. 8, called a 
jack-plane . 
There are a 
great many 
kinds of planes, 
some larger and 
some smaller 




Fig. 7 Smooth Plane 




Fig. 8 —Jack Plane 



20 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



than these, but for the first work it is better to use only these two. 
After you have learned to use these properly you can study other 
styles. These two planes differ only in the sizes of the parts. 

Figs. 7 and 8 show 
how to take hold of 
them andFig. 9 shows 
how to place the piece 
against the bench- 
stop and the position 
of arms and body for 
ordinary planing. The 
parts of the plane for 
which you require 
names are given in 
Fig 10. 

Fig. 1 1 shows how 
to hold the plane to 
see if the cutting edge 
is properly adjusted. 
Thelever9(Fig.lO) 




1 Plane Iron. 

2 Plane Iron Cap. 

3 Plane Iron Screw. 

4 Cap. 

5 Cap Screw 

6 Frog. 

7 "Y' Adjustment. 

8 Brass Adjusting- Nut. 

9 Lateral Adjustment 

10 Frog Screw. 

11 Handle. 

12 Knob. 

13 Handle "Bolt and Nut" 

14 Knob "Bolt and Nut." 

15 Handle Screw. 

1 6 Bottom. 




Fig. 1 0— Section of Plane 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



21 



moves the plane-bit, so it will cut more nearly square across or 
more at one side or the other as desired. 

The milled thumb-nut 8 is used to move the bit endwise 
so it will project more beyond the bottom or sole of the plane, 
or to withdraw it so it will project less. Your plane is probably 
set just right for the work 
you are to do, therefore do 
not move either the lever 
orthe thumb-nut until the 
bit requires adjusting. 

In order to know which 
way to turn the milled 
thumb-nut try it by turn- 
ing it each way, because 
in some planes it is turned 
one way and in others in 
the opposite direction to 
move the bit downward. 

As you turn the milled 
thumb-nut both ways to 
observe the effect of the 

turning be careful to remember how much you turn it before 
it begins to move the plane-bit. Do not attempt to do anything 
further with the plane except to put a little oil on the bottom 
if the bottom becomes rough because of the pine gum stick- 
ing to it. If your plane is dull or if it requires adjusting in any 
other manner, report it to your teacher. 

Your first work in the shop is to learn how to make the 
sides or surfaces of pieces straight and true in all ways. You 
must learn this on a piece of material especially selected to 




Fig. 1 1 — Sighting the Bottom of the Plane 



22 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

teach these things, for if you begin by trying to make some- 
thing for use you will probably fail to learn how to plane and 
how to true a surface. 

The methods of work given in Lessons 1 to 20 are used in 
working nearly every piece which you make and therefore you 
should be very careful to follow them exactly as they are given. 
Your speed in making things later in the course will depend 
upon the thoroughness of your study of these directions. It is 
a common occurrence for a pupil who is thorough in his work 
in making the scale and bench-hook to make a table or book- 
case in one-fourth of the time required by one who goes over 
the same lessons but does not study or understand them 
thoroughly. 

Learn to work exactly as directed, even to the placing the 
fingers upon the tool, the position of the knife in drawing 
lines and every other detail. All these instructions are the 
result of much experimenting and experience with students in 
school shops and with practical men in actual trade work in 
many lines. You have the opportunity of profiting by the ex- 
perience of others and if you are to get the most good from 
your work you must use the experience of others instead of 
blundering along in your own way. 

Given these results you can reap the benefits at a trifling 
expenditure of time and effort. Your plan should be to learn 
the work exactly as the author gives it, and then, after a full 
study of his methods, you may try to work out better methods 
of your own, but do not waste your time experimenting or fol- 
lowing your own notions until you know and have thoroughly 
tried the methods given in this book. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



23 



LESSON 4 

PLANING FIRST SURFACE 

Before beginning to plane look carefully at both sides and 
edges of the piece and select the better side for the one to be 
first planed. We mean by the term "side" one of the two wider 
surfaces. It is not usual to plane one of the narrower surfaces 
or edges first. 




Fig. 1 2— Piece against Stop 



Place the piece of wood against the bench-stop as shown 
in Figures 9 and 12 and remove one shaving, taking off the 
portion indicated by the light colored portion in Fig. 13. If 
the piece is quite straight and true the shaving may be of the 
same width and thickness the entire length, but probably the 
plane will cut from one or two high places, leaving the surface 



24 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



spotted as indicated in Fig. 14. If the plane does not cut a 
shaving the entire length, do not go over the same place again 
but move the plane farther over toward the right hand side, 
taking a shaving as indicated in Fig. 15 and then another 




Fig. 13 — First Shaving Removed from a Smooth Fiece 




Fig. 1 4 — First Shaving Removed from a Rough Piece 




Fig. 1 5 — Second Shaving Removed 




Fig. 1 6 — Third Shaving Removed 



shaving still farther from the side first planed, as in Fig. 16. 
Lastly remove a shaving from the farther side of the top surface 
(Fig. 17) and then examine it carefully. If the piece were 
quite smooth the planing would appear as shown in Figs. 18, 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



25 



19 and 20. Examine the surface carefully to see how smoothly 
the plane has cut and then turn the piece, placing the other 
end against the bench-stop. Plane over the surface again in 
the same manner as at first and then examine it. Compare the 




Fig. 1 7 — Fourth Shaving Removed 



Fig. 1 8 — Second Shaving Removed 



mm, 



Fig. 1 9 — Third Shaving Removed 



■ 






Fig. 20 — Fourth Shaving Removed 



appearance after the second time over with that of the first. 

Did the piece plane easier or smoother the first time or the 

second time? Sometimes you will need to examine the piece 

very carefully in order to know which way will plane smoother. 



26 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 21 — Straight Grained Piece 




Fig. 22 — Slanting Grain 




Sometimes the piece will plane very smooth one way and very 
rough if planed from the opposite direction. Some pieces will not 
plane smooth in 
either direction. 

This roughness W 
or smoothness in 
planing results 
from the grain cf 
the wood not be- 
ing parallel with 
the surface. Fig. 
21 is a picture of 
a piece in which 
the grain is so 
straight that it can 
be planed in either 
direction. Fig. 22 

is a picture of a piece which will plane smooth if the plane is 
moved from A to B, but if the end A were placed against the 
stop and the plane moved from B to A the surface would be 
made rough. 

The piece shown in Fig. 23 will not plane smooth in either 
direction, for the grain at A is in one direction and that at B 
in another. As it is impossible to plane such a piece smooth 
the entire length you should plane it the way which will make 
it the smoothest. In this case this will be accomplished by 
planing from C to A. 

By carefully studying the grain of each piece which you 
work you can judge the way of the grain before you plane. 
This will save both time and material. 



Fig. 23 — Piece from Near a Knot 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



27 



Fig. 24 shows one of many causes of crooked grain in 
wood. The piece shown in Fig. 23 was cut from this board 
above the large knot. This knot is the cause of the crooked 
grain. You can easily imagine how the grain will bend 
around a knot and how the effect extends several inches from 
the knot. 




Fig. 24 — Board with Knot 



There are many peculiar freaks in the grains of different 
woods which you will learn as you work pieces of various sizes 
and shapes. Now that you understand how to examine the 
grain and how to place the piece to make the smoothest sur- 
face, you can continue planing over the surface systematically 
until it is smooth entirely across. Follow the plan indicated 
by the illustrations (Figs. 13 to 20). 

After learning which way will plane the smoothest, plane 
the piece only in that direction, no matter which end requires 
the most planing. 



28 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 5 

TESTING THE FIRST SURFACE 

You have now planed the surface until it appears to be 
smooth, and must test it more carefully by using a try- 
square. 




Fig. 25 — Testing from Edge to Edge 



Fig. 26 shows a try-square such as 
is used in many schools. The try-square 
consists of two parts. The thicker part 
is called the head or beam, and the 
thinner part is called the blade. Try- 
squares are made in many styles and sizes, but all the forms 




Fig. 26— 
Try-square 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



29 



suitable for use in beginning the study of woodwork are similar 
to the one shown. 

The ordinary try-squares 
for use of carpenters, cabi- 
net makers and similar trades- 
men are not expensive tools 
and sometimes such try- squares 
are incorrect. There are many 
ways of testing them, but for the beginner the best 
method is to test them by comparing them with other 
try-squares or with a large steel framing square 
(Fig. 27). 

Hold the piece which you are planing up to the 
light and place the blade 
of the try-square across 
the face as shown in Fig. 
25. If the blade of the 
try-square touches the 
surface at all points the 
surface is correct as 
tested from edge to edge. 

If the try-square does not 
touch all the surface the piece is 
incorrect and instead of planing 
over the entire surface in a syste- 
matic manner as at first directed 
you should now move the plane 
so it will cut off the high 
places only. 

You have probably discovered that the plane cuts deeper 





Fig. 28 —End View of Plane 



30 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

near the center of the cutting edge, therefore the center of the 
cutting edge should be moved over the high places as shown 
in Fig. 28. In this case the plane is moved so it will cut a shaving 
near one edge. Continue planing in this manner until the surface 
is true as tested by applying the try-square from edge to edge. 
After the surface is true from edge to edge, hold the piece 
to the light and sight from end to end as shown in Fig. 29. 




V 



fe. 






Fig. 29 — Sighting Lengthwise. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



31 



This is to see if the piece is straight. Be sure to hold the 
piece in the proper position to get a ray of light. Usually to 
do this the piece must be held up from the bench. After you 
have examined the piece in this way, set the plane on the sur- 
face as shown in Fig. 30, tipping it just enough to allow light 

to pass under it. 
A straight-edge 
may be used in a 
similar manner. 
In grasping the 
straight-edge hold 
it near the center 
as shown in Fig. 
31 whether it be 
wider at the cen- 
ter or straight on 
both edges. The 
machinist steel 
straight-edges 
which maybe used 
for this purpose 
have parallel edges. If there is any space between the piece 
and straig'it-edge at either end of the piece or at any other 
point along the length, plane down the high places until the 
piece is straight. In doing this planing be careful to keep the 
piece correct as tested from edge to edge in the first test. 

Probably your chief difficulty is that you do not press down 
enough on the toe of the plane in starting the stroke, and not 
enough on the heel of the plane in finishing the stroke. If the 
piece is low at the ends and you bear down on the plane 




Big. 30 



■Using the Sj/e of the Plane as a 
Straight-edge 



32 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



properly it will not begin to cut until after the cutting edge 
has passed beyond the low place, and it will cease to cut as it 
nears the opposite end. See Figs. 32 and 33. 




Fig. 31 — Using a Wooden Straight- edge 



Sometimes it is necessary to remove the shavings from but 
a part of the length. In such a case do not place the plane 
down on the surface and then begin to move it forward or stop 
the forward movement and lift the plane abruptly, but keep the 
plane moving forward as it is lowered to the surface and grad- 
ually raise it before it ceases to move forward in finishing the 
stroke. If this is done, there will be no marking of the surface 
where the shaving cut begins or ends. 

In all of this planing be careful to move the plane so slowly 
that you can see just exactly how it is cutting at every part of 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



33 



the stroke by looking down into the space where the shaving 
comes up. This space is called the mouth of the plane. If 




Fig. 32— Starting Pla 




Fig. 33— Finishing Stroke 



34 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



you are obliged to move quickly in order to make the plane 
cut, either sharpen the plane or change the set so that it will 
plane easily enough to allow of very slow movement. Some- 
times it is necessary to grind the planes very rounding 
(Fig. 108), so that they will take a very narrow shaving and 
require less strength to do the work. Sometimes a little oil on 
the plane bottom will cause the plane to work easier. 



LESSON 6 

SIGHTING FOR WIND 

You now have a surface true in two ways, but this is not 
enough. In order to be true enough for use in good work, it 
must be correct when tested in three ways. The first test from 
edge to edge, and the second test, sighting for straightness 
from end to end, may indicate that the piece is all right, and 
yet if you lay the piece upon a flat surface and press down upon 
one corner, and then upon another, the piece may rock, or one 
corner be lifted as 
another is pressed 
down. When the 
piece is not true 
as tested in this 
manner it is said 
to be "in wind." 
This word is pro- 
nounced with long 
i and means much 

the same as the word twist. Fig. 34 shows how such a piece 
would rest upon a flat surface and Fig. 35 shows how such a 




Fig. 34— Piece on Flat Surface Showing Wind 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 35 

piece would appear if looked at from one side. These 'pieces 
are much more in wind than you are likely to get for your first 
test piece, and because of this the crookedness is quite visible in 
the picture. 

If the piece is in wind even a very little, it must be made 
straight before it can be used, and therefore you must study 




Fig. 35 — View of Surface of Winding Piece 

carefully to know what is meant by the word wind and must 
also be certain that you can readily see whether the piece is in 
wind or not. If the piece is correct we say it is out of wind, 
or not in wind. 

The most convenient and practical way to examine a piece 
for wind is to hold it up in both hands between your eyes and 
the side light as shown in Fig. 36. 

First roll the piece until you cannot see any of the back 
edge, the edge farthest from you, and then roll the piece very 
slowly in the opposite direction until you can just see the back 
edge. If the piece is true, or not in wind, you will see all of 
the back edge alike, but if the piece is in wind, one back cor- 
ner will show more than the other back corner. The corner 
which is more visible is called the high back corner, and must 
be planed down until both back corners appear alike. 



36 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



Before doing any planing upon the high back corner, mark 
an X upon it and then turn the piece so that the X will be at 
the edge near your eye. Examine the piece again as at first 
and you will find another high back corner. 




Fig. 36 — Sighting for Wind 

Mark this high corner also and if you have examined the 
surface properly, you will have the two X's on the two diagon- 
ally opposite corners. This second test is to teach you that 
if there is a high back corner, there is also a high front corner 
at the opposite end, therefore in planing to make the surface 
true, you can plane off either high corner, but usually you 
should plane a part off each of the high corners. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 37 

Before you plane either corner, examine each end to see if 
one end is thicker than the opposite end. If there is any 
difference in the thickness of the two ends, you had better 
plane off the high corner at the thicker end so that you will be 
making the piece nearer equal thickness at the two ends at the 
same time you are planing down the high corners and getting 
the piece out of wind. 

In planing out of wind, work very carefully and test the 
piece very often. If you have any trouble about making the 
surface true, test it in these three ways after each shaving is 
removed. Unless you make these tests you will waste much 
time by making the piece incorrect in other ways as you 
attempt to plane it out of wind. Be careful to keep the piece 
smooth as well as true, but if you cannot avoid making marks 
where you start or stop the plane, go all over the surface system- 
atically, as directed in Lesson 4, after the surface has been 
planed true. 

Do not give up until the surface is correct as tested in 
these three ways, for you can make it correct if you will work 
carefully according to the directions. The common mistake 
is to neglect testing it often enough. 

LESSON 7 

FACE-MARK 

After the surface has been made true it should be marked 
so that you know it has been tested and found correct, and 
also so that you know which is the surface you first trued. 
The mark which is used for this purpose is called a. face-mark, 
and the surface is called a face-surface. The face-mark is of 



38 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

much importance, and you must be very particular to place a 
mark of this character on the first surface of every piece which 
you work as soon as the surface is correct. 

The mark should be similar to the one shown in Fig. 37, 
but it need not be exactly like it. Usually it is located near 



: 



\ 



wsmmmmm 

Fig. J 7 — First Face-mark 



HHHHHHHHHH 



the center of the piece and is made free hand. It always ex- 
tends entirely to one edge and never to both edges. The 
reason for this is that the edge to which it extends is the one 
to be planed next, the one which will receive a similar mark, 
and which is called a face-edge. 

For this reason you must examine the piece and determine 
which edge is to be the face-edge before making the mark on 
the first surface. If the piece is to be cut up into two or more 
pieces, face-marks should be placed on the surface so that 
after the parts are separated there will be a face-mark on each 
piece. 

LESSON 8 

KEEPING THE PLANE SHARP 

In all planing you must keep the plane sharp. You not 
only can learn to sharpen the plane, but you can learn also to 
do something which will avoid dulling it rapidly. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



39 




Fig. 38— Lifting Plane on Return Stroke 



If you have a board which has not been machine planed or 

surfaced, brush all grit and dirt off the surface before begin- 
ning to plane it. By being careful to plane systematically, 

you will true the 

surface with much 

less planing, and 

thus not only do 

better work, but 

also will use the 

plane so much less 

that it will remain 

sharp much 

longer. 

If, in using the 

plane, as it is drawn 

back the cutting 

edge rubs upon the surface of the piece being planed, the edge 

will be dulled more 
than while cutting 
on the forward 
stroke. Because 
of this you should 
either lift, tilt or 
swing the plane as 
you pull it back. 
Fig. 38 shows 
how the plane is 
lifted so that on 
the return stroke it 
Fig. 39— Swinging Plane on Return Stroke rests upon the toe 




40 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



of the plane instead of on the cutting edge of the bit. For most 
work this is the best way to hold it on the return stroke. 

Sometimes the piece is too narrow to permit of lifting it in 
this manner. It may then be turned to an angle as shown in 
Fig. 39. This is the usual way of holding it in jointing edges. 




Fig. 4 — Tilting Plane on Return Stroke 

The one difficulty about turning the plane in this manner is that 
you may neglect to turn it entirely back to a position parallel 
with the edges for the forward stroke. Be sure to guard against 
this, for if you do not it will take much longer to make the sur- 
face correct. 

A third method, which is more often used in planing wide 
surfaces, is to tilt the plane as shown in Fig. 40. Carefully 
jtudy each of these methods and use whichever is best for the 
work in hand. 

LESSON 9 

FIRST EDGE 

The next task is to plane an edge for a face-edge. This 
edge must be true as shown by testing with the try-square as 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



41 



in Fig. 41 and also by sighting for straightness, as shown in 
Fig. 29. After you have sighted the edge, you may use a 
straight-edge, as in Fig. 31, or the plane bottom as in Fig. 30, 
but do not use either of these until you have examined the 
edge by sighting it. There are two reasons why you should 
not depend upon the straight-edge or the plane bottom: First, 
if you do not use your eye you miss the opportunity of learning 
the best methods and learning to work rapidly; second, you 
will soon be working on pieces too long to test with the plane 
or straight-edge, and if you have not learned to sight with your 
eye, you will be unable to do good work. 

In using the try-square hold it as shown in Fig. 41, 
pressing the head firmly against the face-surface. Be partic- 




Fig. 41 — Testing First Edge 



42 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



ular to hold the wrist and forearm as shown in Fig. 42, for much 
of your success will depend upon the position of your arm and 
wrist. Do not rub the blade along the edge, but lift it and 

lower it at several 
places. Be sure to 
test to the ends. 
The planing of 
the edges follows 
substantially the 
same methods as 
the planing of the 
surface, as illus- 
trated in Lesson 4. 
The edge be- 
ing narrow you will need to be careful not to move the plane 
too far out over the edge. This is also an excellent opportunity 
to carefully keep the plane parallel with the edges of the piece 




Fig. 42 — Testing First Edge 



"> 



Fig. 43 — Face Mark on Edge 



as shown in Fig. 12. It is improper to swing the heel of the 
plane at an angle on the forward stroke in doing such work. It 
not only wears the plane out of true, but hinders you from 
doing the best work. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 43 

After this edge is correct, place a face-mark on it pointing 
to the one on the face-surface as shown in Fig. 43. It is not 
essential that the ends of the two marks meet at the corner. 

LESSON 10 

MARKING GAUGE 

The marking gauge (Fig 44) is a tool for use in drawing 
lines parallel with an edge. It consists of two principal parts, 
the block, or 
head, and the 

beam, or bar. '" _ J^ 

To keep the i -"*?*.< 2 

parts in place V 

there is a thumb V~* WSjKk 

screw Or some Fig. 44 — Marking Gauge 

similar arrange- 
ment in the head. The line is made by the small metal point 
called the spur or by a pencil shown in the opposite end. The 
shape of the spur is shown in Fig. 45. The manufac- 
turers usually fit the spur with 
a conical point. Before the 
gauge is used the point should 
be filed to the proper form. 

The marking gauge is not 
usually supplied with a pencil 
point by the maker, and there- 
fore if you wish it to make a 
pencil line you will bore a hole through the beam and fit a 
pencil into it. The pencil point should be short. (Fig. 44.) 



Fig. 4 5 — Point of Gauge Spur 



44 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



You will probably find some graduations on the side of the 
gauge beam similar to those on your rule, but do not use them 
for they are not usually correct. If they are correct, the spur 





Fig. 4 7— Pocket Rule 



Fig. 4 6 — Setting Gauge 

may not be at exactly the end of the scale and, therefore, if 
you set the head by the scale the space which would be 

marked by the spur 
would not be correct. 
Because it is not safe 
to use the scale on 
the side of the gauge 
beam you should set 
the gauge by holding it and the rule as shown in Fig. 46. 

Notice that the rule is held in the right hand so that the 
four fingers are around the rule and the thumb underneath, 
with the end against the gauge-beam. Notice also that 
three fingers of the left hand are around the gauge-beam, the 
first finger on top of the gauge head and the thumb against 
the side of the gauge head directly below the beam. 
Be sure to place your hands and fingers in exactly this 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 45 

manner; it will enable you to set the gauge quickly and 
exactly. 

As lines are made to work to, it is important that you make 
the lines correctly. It is often discovered that the main diffi- 
culty a beginner has is caused by carelessness in making the 
lines. Because of a belief that the lines are of little conse- 
quence they are carelessly drawn and much time is afterwards 
spent in trying to make the parts fit. If the lines had 
been correct, the work could have been better done with 
half the labor. Be very careful in setting the gauge and 
drawing the lines and in making any other lines which you 
require in your work. 

If you will examine your rule, which should be a No. 84 
or a No. 62, you will find the rulings which are on the outside 
edges, as the rule is folded to six inches, are inches, half 
inches, quarter inches and eighth inches. (See Fig. 47.) At 
present, pay no attention to any of the rulings except these. 
In the No. 84 rule these marks are along the brass binding. 
Notice that the one-half inch marks extend about half way 
across each side, that the one-fourth inch marks extend to or 
past the line farthest from the edge and that the one-eighth 
inch marks are the shortest ones on the scale, extending about 
to the first line. Be sure to fix in mind these features of the 
rule, as all rules for practical measuring are made after this 
general plan. If you become familiar with these markings you 
will readily learn to use any ordinary scale. 

Your next bit of work is to draw lines on the face-surface 
or face-side of the piece you have planed. After all the lines 
have been drawn, the surface will appear as shown in Fig. 48. 
In this figure the outer lines represent the edges of the face- 



46 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



surface of the piece. The four inside lines represent the lines 
to be drawn. The short vertical lines which terminate in arrow 



1 






•-5M 


"I X 



Fig. 4 8 —First Surface Lined 

heads are called dimension lines. Notice that each line has 
cna arrow head at the lower or border line of the figure and one 
arrow head at 
an inner line. 
This designates 
that the figures 
on the dimen- 
sion line tell 
the distance 
from the edge 
to that line. 

The % inch 
spaceissosmall 
that there is not 
room for figures 
andarrow heads 
between the 
two lines. The 
arrow heads 
are therefore 

placed outside of the lines, with points just touching them to 
indicate which lines are intended. The figures are placed 




Fig. 49 — Drawing Gauge Line 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



47 



between the two lines, in line with the two arrow heads. 
Study this drawing until you are certain how the gauge lines 
are to be drawn. The line ^ inch from the face-edge is 
the easiest to draw, and therefore you may set the gauge to 
y 2 inch, holding it and the rule as shown in Fig. 46. 

Take the gauge in your right hand holding the piece against 

the bench-stop as 
shown in Figs. 49 and 
50. Notice that the 
right arm is parallel 
with the piece you 
are gauging. This is 
still more easily seen 
in Fig. 52. 

The gauge must 
be held so that its 
beam rests upon its 
edge instead of rest- 
ing upon the spur, 
fcr if it rests upon the 
spur it will be impos- 
sible for you to draw 
an even line in wood 
which has uneven 
grain. Fig. 51 shows how the beam is rolled to cause it to 
rest upon its edge; it also shows how the spur slants instead of 
being perpendicular to the surface. To learn to use the 
gauge, take the position shown and move the gauge from the 
upper to the lower end of the piece, but with the beam rolled 
so that the spur will not touch the wood. After making this 




Fig. 50 — Drawing Gauge Line 



48 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 51 — Rolled Gauge 

very important, for 
if the head is not 
tight against the 
face-edge, theline 
will not be correct. 
Gradually roll 
the beam until the 
spur enters the 
wood enough to 
make a line of the 
proper weight. As 
the gauge nears 
the lower end of 
the piece it may 



movement several times, 
roll the beam so that the 
spur will just touch the 
surface, but not enough 
to make a full line. In 
the use of the gauge 
watch the position of the 
beam and head by look- 
ing under the beam and 
next the head so that 
you can see if the head 
is firmly against the face- 
edge, as indicated by 
the arrow in Fig. 49. 
The holding of the head 
against the face-edge is 




Fig. 52— Rolling Piece at Fnd of Line 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



49 



be necessary to roll the piece as shown in Fig. 52, in order 
to avoid hitting the bench with the head of the gauge. Fig. 
53 shows this rolling from the opposite s'de. Notice that the 
right arm is par- 
allel with the 
piece. 

After you 
have drawn the 
y 2 -inch-line 
set the gauge 
to % inch and 
draw a line % 
inch from the 
fac e - e dge. 
Next draw a 
linel inch from 
the face-edge, 
and then a line 
1 J j inches from 
the face-edge. Fig. 53- Rolling Piece at End of Line 




LESSON 11 

PLANING TO WIDTH 

Place the piece on which you have drawn gauge lines on 
top of the bench against the stop. Do not drive it against the 
stop. Plane the second edge down to the gauge line, making 
the piece \y 2 inches wide. Test this piece by using the try- 
square as shown in Fig. 42. If you plane exactly to the line, 
and the line is correct, the one test with the try-square is 



50 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



sufficient, but as you are likely to plane beyond the line, or 
perhaps the line may not be correct, you had better test it in 
several ways. You may examine it by sighting for straightness, 
as in Fig. 29. Another test of considerable importance is to 
measure the width at several places by applying the rule as 
shown in Fig. 54. 

In using the rule to measure with, it should be held so 
that the graduations are against the surface which is being 
measured. It is best to place the end of the thumb against 
the edge of the piece to assist in adjusting the markings of the 
rule to the exact position desired. 

In using the rule, use the markings away from the end, if this 
can be done. In Fig. 54 the scale is placed so that an inch line 

is at the edge 
by the face- 
mark. It is not 
incorrect to 
hold it so that 
the inch line is 
at the opposite 
edge. Always 
hold the rule in 
this manner for 
measuring and 
you will soon do 
as accurate 
measuring as 

the average mechanic. You will probably find that the piece is a 
little less than 1 y 2 inches. If in setting the gauge you-set the 
point of the spur exactly behind the 1 y 2 inch line, and then planed 




Fig. 54 — Measuring Width with Rule 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 51 

the line entirely away, the piece is one-half the width of the line 
too narrow. This is because the spur bruises the wood at 
each side of the point and makes a line of some width. For 
this reason, in setting the gauge for planing to width or thick- 
ness, it should be set so that the inside of the line will give 
the correct space. In all other gauging, set the spur exactly to 
the line on the scale. 

If by measuring the width of the piece, you discover that it 
is wider at one end than at the other, set the gauge to the 
narrow end and draw another line. Plane to this line the 
same as in planing to the 1 y% inch line. Remember to test the 
edge with the try-square as well as by measuring. When this 
edge is correct, pass to the next surface or second side with- 
out putting any mark upon this edge. The two face-marks, 
the one on the first surface, (Fig. 37) and the one on the first 
edge, (Fig. 43) are the only ones used to denote face-surfaces, 
or that the surfaces are finished. 

LESSON 12 

PLANING TO THICKNESS 

The gauge should now be set to 1% inches, (See Drawing 
Fig. 66) and lines should be drawn along each edge \y A 
inches from the face-side. Lines should also be drawn across 
each end. If in drawing these lines you stand at the end of 
the bench near the bench-stop, you can place the piece against 
the stop in drawing the long lines and lay it down at the corner 
of the bench, as shown in Fig. 55, while drawing the lines 
across the ends. 

Remember what was said in the previous lesson about set- 
ting the spur so that the piece will be full size after the entire 



52 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

line has been planed away. If in planing the first surface you 
planed away so much of the material that the piece is less than 
\y A inches thick, you may set the gauge to the thinner end 
and draw a line entirely around the piece and then plane down 
to this line. 

The fourth surface or second side may be tested by meas- 

uring as in Fig. 54, and 

4 S a ls° by sighting for 

straightness, but if you 



r 



are careful to plane ex- 
actly to the lines, the 
only test required is the 
testing from line to line 
as on the first surface, 
~. % shown in Fig. 25. 

,* • When you think the 



piece is finished, take the 

try -square and rule and 

J test it in every way that 

. ^ „ . . _ , you can, to see if you 

Fig. 55 — Lining Across End .... 

have overlooked any in- 
accuracies. If you find any errors, go carefully over the work 
and correct them. Follow the same order and the same direc- 
tions as in working the surfaces the first time. If necessary, 
go back to the first surface and true it, then repeat every test. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



53 



LESSON 13 

LAYING OFF SPACES— DRAWING OF SCALE 

Lay on the bench the piece which you have finished 

planing and hold the rule on edge on the piece as shown in 

Fig. 56. Notice that the rule is placed on the piece so that 

there is about l{ inch of wood projecting beyond each end of 

the rule. Do 

not attempt to 

measure this 

amount of pro- 
jection, but 

place the rule 

in position, 

1 eavin g an 

equal amount 

of projection at 

each end as 

nearly as you 

can judge with- Fi ?- 56— Rule in Place for Marking Spaces 

out measuring. 
These projecting 
ends are to be cut 
off as the piece is 
finished, and 
therefore their ex- 
act length is of no 
consequence. 
Take your knife in 
your right hand 
and make a mark 
opposite each inch 

graduation and at 

Fig. 57 — Detail of Knife in Hand ° 





54 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



Fix. 58 - Bench Knife 



each end of the rule. Fig. 5 7 shows the knife and rule from the 
left side. These marks should be made with great care and 
should extend square out from the rule. In order to do 
this work accurately, you must be very particular about how 

you hold your 
knife. Do not hold 
your knife so that 
the handle extends 
upward between the thumb and forefinger, but rather in the 
hand and underneath the first finger as shown in the picture. 

The knife 

should have a ■- ._•„- 

sharp point 

■ -i . .,. Fig. 59— Pocket Kufe 

similar to those 6 J 

shown in Figs. 
58 and 59. The 
handle should 
not be too large 
or too small. 
The bench- 
knife, Fig. 58, 
is not equal to 
a good pocket 
knife, but will 
do very well. 
It should be 
kept with as 
sharp a point as 
the width of the 
Fig. 60— Knife and Try-square blade will per- 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 55 

mit. The ordinary difficulty with such knives is that the blades 
are too long. They should not be more than 1^ inches long. 
Sometimes for smallhands the handle also should be shortened. 
The pocket knife, Fig. 59, has a handle three inches long, 
and is about 6 Y x inches long from tip to tip of the blades. 
The little blade should be used for all lining. The large blade 




Fig. 61 — Knife and Try -square 

is sufficient for whittling round ends such as are used in racks, 
chairs, etc. 

After a mark has been made at each 1-inch line, lay the 
rule aside and place the try-square on the piece; the head 
against the face-edge, two fingers on the blade, two against 
the piece, and the thumb against the middle of the head of the 
try-square as shown in Fig. 60. Place the point of the knife 



56 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



blade in one of the marks made in laying off the spaces and 
move the try-square up to the knife blade. Be careful to hold 
the knife blade as shown in Figs. 56 and 57. 

After the try-square is in position, draw a line entirely 
across the piece. Be sure the knife is held in the same posi- 
tion during the entire process of lining. Continue to draw 

lines in this manner at each 







mark until the head of the 
try-square extends to the 
end of the piece. Reverse 
the piece and the try- 
square, holding them as 
shown in Fig. 6 1 , and finish 
drawing the lines. 

After all the lines are 
drawn at the inch spaces, 
take the piece and try- 
square as shown in Fig. 62 
and examine each line. If 
any are found to be incor- 
rect, draw again at that 
point, being careful to set 
the blade by the original 
Fig. 62— Testing Lines on Scale knife mark and not to a 

crooked part of the line. Keep trying until you have a 
straight line at every inch even if it does injure the 
appearance of the piece, for it is of much more consequence 
that you learn to draw the lines than that your piece has no 
extra lines. 

The next step is to lay off the y 2 inch spaces and draw 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



57 



lines from the line which is one inch from the face-edge to the 
face-edge. Hold the try-square and knife in the same manner 
as in drawing the lines at the 1 inch divisions, reversing when 
required to keep the head of the try-square on the face-edge. 
Test these lines in the same way as directed for testing the 
1 inch lines. (Fig- 62.) 





















































































ir 


in 


^ 


1*T 


T+T 


% 


ih 


lh 


4r 


tIt 


i\t 


Th 


ill 


ill III 


ir 


+ 


itr 


w 


L 


xtr 


k 


itil 


4r 





Fig. 63 — Scale 



Lay off the % inch spaces and draw lines from the line 
which is one-half inch from the face-edge to the face-edge. 
Draw and test these lines the same as the 1 inch lines. 

Lay off and draw the lines at the }£ inch spaces. You will 
need to be very particular about these lines or the spaces will 
not be equal. Lay the rule on edge on the piece and examine 
all the spacing carefully. If it is all correct, the scale is com- 
plete and will appear as in Fig. 63, and if not, you had better 
make another scale on the opposite side. 

Draw gauge lines on the back-side the same as you did on 
the face-side, being careful to hold the head of the gauge 
against the face-edge. 

In order to locate the scale on the opposite side, draw a 
line across one edge, place the point of the knife blade in the 
end of the first inch line and move the try-square up to the 



58 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



knife blade the same as in drawing the line for the scale. (See 
Fig. 64.) Next place the knife point in the end of this line 
and draw a line across the back side. If the face-edge is next 
to you, the knife maybe held as shown in Fig. 65 in setting the 
try-square. The line is then drawn in the usual manner. 
(Fig. 64.) 

In lining around a piece it is better to 






7 



set the try-square 
by the line on the 
face-edge, even 
though the one on 
the back-edge has 
been drawn. 

If you have a 
scale on both sides 
of your piece, set 
the marking gauge 
to enough less 
than the thickness 
of the piece to 
allow for planing 
the scale off and 
draw lines along 
each edge. Exam- 
ine the scales and plan to plane off the poorer one. 

After the lines have been drawn, plane off the scale and 
test the piece as you tested the fourth side, Lesson 12. Be 
very careful to plane exactly to the lines or you will have 
trouble getting the piece in proper shape. Set the marking 
gauge to 3 Ae inch and draw lines on each edge with the head 
of the gauge against the side which has no scale upon it. 




Fig. 64 — Setting Try -square at Corner 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



59 



Extend all the lines which mark the half inches on the scale 
entirely across the surface. Extend these lines down on each 
edge to the lines 
which are 3 /io inch 
from the other 
side. Be very care- 
ful to have the lines 
meet exactly at the 
corners. Place the 
knife as shown in 
Fig. 64 and draw 
the line as you 
were directed to 
draw the line 
across the edge, 
except that you 
should now stop at the line which is 3 A 6 inch from the edge. 
The piece will then appear as in Fig. 66. 




Fig. 65— Setting Try -square at Corner 



■\z 



































































































1 




1 


,1, 


1 


1 


.1. 


1 


.1. 


,1 


1 




1 


,1, 


1 




| 


1 


1 


1 


1 


| 




I 


ill 




III 


ill 


III 


ill 


! 


ill 


ill 


ill 


ill 


ill 


ill 


ill 


ill 


ill 


III 


|l 


1 


1 




1 


III 


III 



7 
J 



Fig. 6 6— Piece Lined for Sawing 



60 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

LESSON 14 

SAWING 
The back-saw (Fig. 67) has so thin a blade that a piece of 
metal is placed along the back to keep the blade from bending. 

Back-saws are used 
for cutting across the 
grain. Tenon saws 
maybe similar to back 
saws except that they 




Fig. 67- Back-saw are filed so that they 

can be used for cutting either across the grain or parallel with 
the grain. These are now seldom used, as saws are so cheap 
that it is much better to have two saws, one to saw across the 
grain and one to saw parallel with the grain. Place the bench- 
hook on the bench and the 
piece lined in Lesson 13 
upon it and grasp the back- 
saw as shown in Fig. 68. 

Notice that the thumb 
is against the saw and upon 
the wood close to the back 
edge of the piece. Notice 
that the first finger (Fig. 
69) extends along the side 
of the handle. Place your 
thumb so that the saw will 
cut up close to one of the 
knife lines which extend 
entirely across the surface. 
Be sure that the saw leaves 
the smooth edge made by Fig. 68— Holding Back-saw 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 61 

the knife. . Move the saw forward and backward the length of the 
blade, the lower edge of the side of the blade resting against your 
thumb and the teeth of the saw close to the wood but not cut- 
ting it. (Fig. 68.) Move the saw forward and backward in 
this manner without do- 
ing any sawing until you 
understand the motion 
thoroughly. 

Look at the angle 
formed by the side of the 
saw with the surface of 
the piece. This should 
be an exact right angle 
and if you are careful you 
can hold the saw so it 
will be. To assist your 
eye, at first, you can set 
a try-square as shown in 
Fig. 70. You will ob- 
serve that if the move- ., , 

, , . Fig. 69 -Detail of Sawing 

ment of the saw is cor- 
rect, the wrist is rigid and the elbow the moving joint. You 
will also be supporting the saw with your hand. 

When you have studied this movement until you under- 
stand exactly how the motion is made, you can lower the 
saw just enough to allow the teeth to touch the wood at the 
back edge, but not enough to cut, still keeping the wrist rigid, 
and holding the saw at the same angle as shown in Fig. 68. 

Move the saw forward and backward several times in this 
manner, lifting it entirely from the wood on the back stroke. 




62 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



Then let it cut a very little on the forward stroke, still lifting 
it on the back stroke. After the kerf (the channel which the 

saw makes) is well 




■ 



Fig. 70 - Try-square 



forward stroke 
lower the han- 
dle a little until 
the saw has the 
position shown 
in Fig. 71. 
After sawing a 
little more the 
saw should 
have the posi- 
tion shown in 
Fig. 72. Watch 



started you will not 
need to lift the saw on 
the back stroke and 
can lower the handle a 
very little. The thumb 
may now be moved to 
the position shown in 
Fig. 69. 

As yon lower the 
handle, watch the knife 
line to see that the saw 
is cutting close to it but 
not roughing the edge 
of the wood. At each 




Fig. 71 — Sawing, Third Position 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



63 



constantly for the right angle at the side of the saw and as soon 
as the kerf extends across the surface watch the line at the front 
edge to see that the saw is cutting close to it but not roughing 
it. Stop after each few strokes and examine the back edge. See 
that the saw is cutting close to the back line but not roughing 
it. On the side of the saw-kerf opposite the line at the back 
side of the piece, 
the edge will be 
roughened be- 
cause there is no 
knife line on that 
side. If you wish 
to have the wood 
at both sides of 
the saw smooth, 
you must draw 
two lines just fir Fig- 72— Sawing, Fourth Position 

enough apart to allow of sawing between them. Continue saw- 
ing until the kerf extends to the lines which are % 6 inch from the 
bottom side of the piece. Be careful to saw exactly to these 
lines and no farther, for the piece is to be bent and if the saw 
cuts too far the piece will break instead of bend. Fig. 73 shows 
the piece after it has been bent. Saw at the same side of each 
line which extends across the piece. Turn the piece end for 
end as soon as it will make the holding easier. 







Fig. 73 — Piece Bent 



64 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



OUTLINE 

After completing the study piece make an outline showing 
each step in making this piece. This will be found of great 
value, for, in working the pieces for the bench-hook ycu will 
need to recall the order in which the sides and edges are 
worked, the tests for each surface, each operation in laying 
off spaces, drawing lines, and sawing. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 65 

LESSON 15 

BENCH-HOOK 

You have learned to ptene all four sides of a piece so that 
the surfaces will be true and so that their ends will be of the 
same size and shape. You can now use this knowledge in 
making simple things. 

The bench-hook requires but little knowledge beyond that 
required for making the scale, except fcr the end planing. Be 



Fig. 74 — Bench-hook 

very particular to true each surface exactly as directed in 
making the scale, using the same tools and in the same 
order. Because these pieces are fastened together, any care- 
lessness in jointing the edges or truing the surfaces will be dis- 
covered and may show badly. Try to forget all about the fact 
that you are making a bench-hook and try to feel that you are 
simply studying. This will help you to keep your mind on the 
work, for it is much more interesting to see how well you can 
do than to simply make something to use. If you do your 
best you will be rewarded many times, for you will be re- 
warded every time a surface or end is finished. 

Fig. 74 shows the completed bench-hook. It consists of 
three pieces of wood and eight nails. Fig. 75 is a mechanical 



66 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 






?|v? 



^ 



#^ 



fil 






I 



<\i 



^o 



Hh 



l 



••y 



\ 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 67 

drawing of the complete bench-hook. In this drawing, each 
piece is shown, and also the nails. Usually, in such drawings 
the nails are not shown. They are shown in this one so that 
you will be able to drive them correctly. You will notice that 
they are represented by dotted lines. This is because they 
are out of sight. The heads are full lines or circles, in the 
front elevation, because, as we look at the edge of the bench- 
hook, we see the nail heads. 

If you will look at this same view where the nail heads 
show (the front elevation we call it) you will see a dotted line 
almost the entire length of the elevation. At each end, the 
line is full, because the ends of the wide piece show beyond 
the side pieces. From these ends you can trace the line and 
learn that this dotted line is to indicate that the wide piece is 
the same thickness from end to end. By using dotted lines, 
we indicate edges that are not visible. 

The plan shows the wide piece and the dotted lines for the 
nails and the edges of the side pieces. This view, or plan, as 
it is called, shows in full lines what you would see if you were 
to place the bench-hook on the bench and look down upon it. 

You will see between the views some fine lines and some 
figures. The lines are made fine to distinguish them from the 
other lines. They terminate in arrowheads and are called 
dimension lines. The figures are for the purpose of giving 
the sizes and are called dimensions. These dimensions are 
not to give the size of the picture or drawing, but the size of 
the real bench-hook. Sometimes the drawing is made the 
size indicated by the figures, but more often the drawing is 
smaller than the object. In drawings for very small articles 
the drawing is made many times larger than the object. 



68 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 76— Jointing Edge in Vise 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 69 

If you will apply your rule to this drawing, you will find 
that the side pieces which are marked 12 in. are actually just 
three inches long, or one-fourth the real size of the object. A 
draftsman would say that the drawing was made to the scale of 
one-fourth, or three inches to the foot. You can measure 
other parts of the drawing and find that it is all made to a 
scale of one-fourth. 

At the right of the front elevation and the plan, is a third 
part of the drawing. This is called an end elevation. Although 
this is a small view it is quite important, for it shows one end 
of each piece and how they are placed together. 

Read all the dimensions on this drawing before beginning 
work, and then dress up the 4-inch-wide piece on the four 
sides. As you do this work, see that every surface is worked 
and tested in the same order as the study piece. (Lessons 4 
to 14.) As the piece is too wide to rest against the bench- 
stop, it may be held in the vise as shown in Fig. 76. If the 
stock which you have is too small to make a piece the size 
called for by the drawing, then make the piece as near these 
sizes as you can. Be sure, however, to always work to lines, 
gauging for both width and thickness. 

LESSON 16 

PLANING ENDS 

After the piece is finished on all four sides, draw a knife 
line entirely around one end about % 2 inch from the end. 
(Figs. 64 and 65.) Place thepiece in the vise so that the 
end will not be more than j4 inch above the bench, as 
shown in Fig. 77. The piece is placed thus low in the vise 



70 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



because it will plane easier. Take the smooth plane and sight 
the bottom (Fig. 12), to see that the bit is cutting at the 
center. Hold the plane as shown in Fig. 77 or 78. The 
picture shows the plane at an angle of about forty-five degrees. 
This is usually the best angle for cutting the grain, but some- 







Fig. 77— Planing an End 

times the plane will cut better if held at a different angle, or 
held parallel with the edges as in planing an edge or side. 
Unless you are certain that some other angle is better, you 
should hold the plane as shown in the pictures. Always move 
the plane parallel with the edge at whatever angle held. 

There are three very important points to remember in 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



71 



planing an end. First, do not plane entirely across the end; 
usually about two-thirds or three-fourths of the distance, and 
then either reverse the piece or step to the other side as shown 
in Fig. 78. Second, stop between every stroke while the 
plane is between you and the piece, (Fig. 79) and see exactly 




Fig. 78 — Planing an End 



where you wish the plane to cut next. Third, always have a 
knife line to plane to, and stop so close to the line that there 
will be no unevenness, and yet the smooth, glassy surface 
made by the knife remain. This is not so difficult a matter 
as you may suppose, for if you will see exactly where each 



72 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



shaving is to be cut, and move the plane so slowly that you 
can look into the mouth of the plane and see how it is cut- 
ting, you can make the end correct the first time. Test the 
end with the try- 
square, holding it 
against the side as 
in Fig. 80, and 
against the edge 
as in Fig. 81. Be 
sure to use the 
face-side and face- 
edge in making 
these tests. 

If ycu fail to 
make the end true, 
read all of these 
directions again, 
then draw another 
lin e ent ir ely 
around the piece 
not more than Yss 
inch from the end 
and try again. 

Continue study- 
ing the directions 
and re-lining and 

re-planing the end until it is made true. Remember it is not 
practice but study that will make possible doing the work 
right. 

After the first end has been finished, measure the length 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



73 




I 



Fig. 80 — Try-square on Side and End 



around the end 
and try again. 
Although to have 
the board shorter 
than the drawing 
calls for is a seri- 
ous mistake and 
should not occur, 
yet it is far worse 
to leave the end 
without making it 
square and smooth. 



given in the draw- 
ing and draw a line 
around the other 
end of the piece. 
Saw about % 2 inch 
from the line (See 
Figs. 64 and 65), 
and then plane to 
the line. 

You should be 
able to make this 
end square the first 
time trying, but if 
you do not, then 
re-line entirely 




Fig. 81 — Try-square on Edge and End 



74 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

LESSON 17 

MAKING THE SIDES. 

After finishing the wide piece for the bottom of the bench- 
hook, take the piece which is 12 }4 inches long and 4 inches 
wide, dress it square and finish the ends. Proceed exactly as 
directed in making the first piece. Make the piece as wide 
as you can, for it is to be ripped in two, and all the waste 
material may be taken from center. Do not plane it to less than 
3^16 inches, for this will allow but 3 i 6 inch waste for ripping, 
and unless you do very fine sawing you will require this for waste. 
As this piece is to be ripped in two, you should place face- 
marks as shown in Fig. 82. This figure also shows lines 

drawn around 
the edges for 
chamfering. 
Draw the line 
for ripping by 
setting the 
gauge at 2 
Inches and 

draw lines on both surfaces and across the ends from one face- 
edge; then set the gauge at \y 2 inches and draw the lines 
on both surfaces and ends for the 1 ]/ 2 inch piece. 

The piece is now ready to be ripped unless it is to be 
chamfered. The methods of chamfering are given in the next 
lesson. The following lessons on the ripsaw and ripping 
should be studied before attempting the ripping. After the 
piece has been ripped, joint the edge of each piece. In case you 
have sawed beyond the line draw another line and plane to it. 




Fig. 82— Piece for Sides 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



75 



LESSON 18 

CHAMFERING. 

A simple way of ornamenting a piece is to bevel the edges. 
When this is done as shown in Figs. 82 to 86, it is called 
chamfering. Such beveling of corners may be used in many 
places. Chamfers need not extend the entire length of a 
corner, but for the present we will consider only those which 
do, because these can 
be made with a com- 
mon plane. 

To do the cham- 
fering, draw pencil 
lines around the board 
at an equal distance 
from the corners on the 
surface, and on the 
ends and edges . The 
chamfer may be on 
either the face-sur- 
face or the back-sur- 
face. For this piece 
the chamfer is on 

the face surface (Fig. 82. ) Usually the lines are the same dis- 
tance from the edges. In this drawing (Fig. 75 ) they are % inch 
from the corners, therefore set the gauge at % inch and draw 
the lines without changing the gauge, for in gauging for a 
chamfer we do not always hold the gauge against a face-surface 
or face-edge, but against the edges which are to be chamfered. 
This not only saves time, but is better, as we want the cham- 




Fig. 83— Chamfering End 



76 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



fers equal, and if we gauged all from the face-surfaces they 
would not be alike unless the piece were the same width at 

each end. Use a pencil in 
marking for chamfers and draw 
lines across ends as well as 
edges (Fig. 82). 

In working the chamfer, 
place the piece in the vise and 
hold the plane as in Fig. 83, 
that is, at an angle of about 
forty-five degrees with the 
edge. It should be moved 
parallel with the edge as indi- 
cated by the arrow. 

Plane until the beveled or 
chamfered surface extends 




Fig. 84 — Testing Chamfer 



from line to line. 
Test it with the blade 
of the try-square as 
shown in Fig. 84. 

Be careful not to 
plane beyond the 
lines; rather leave 
about half the width 
of each line. 

After chamfering 
each end, place the 
piece as shown in 
Fig. 85 and chamfer 
the edges. In working the edges, the plane is held and 




Fig. 85 Chamfering Edge 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



77 



moved parallel with the edge. After both edges have been 
finished and tested as shown in Fig. 84, test all the chamfers 
by measuring, 
Fig. 86. They 
should all be 
of the same 
width; if they 
vary, see if you 
can find the 
mistake and 
correct it. Do 
not fail to make 
all the cham- 
fers alike and 
straight from 

line to line, for such work is spoiled by even a slight irregularity 
or rounding of the surface. 




Fig. 86 — Measuring Chamfer 



LESSON 19 

RIP SAW AND HAND SAW. 

The ripsaw and handsaw may appear the same size and 
shape in a picture. Either style of back shown in Figs. 87 and 

88 may be used. 
The difference is 
in the shape of the 
teeth. As the 
handsaw is for cut- 
ting across the 
grain the points of 
its teeth are shaped like the point of a knife blade. (Fig. 89A. ) 




Fig. 8 7 — The Common Grades of both Handsaws 
and Ripsaws are Made this Shape 



78 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 88- 



-Some of the Better Grade of Saws are 
Made this Shape 



The teeth of the hacksaw are similar to those of a handsaw. 

The ripsaw which cuts lengthwise of the board has chisel 

shaped points to its teeth. (Fig. 89 B.) Ripsaws are usually 

larger than hand- 
saws. 

The fitting of 
saws is too difficult 
for you to under- 
take until you are 
familiar with the 

uses of the saws, as well as careful and precise with tools. 

When your saws require fitting take them to an expert in saw 

fitting. Do not think 

it sufficient to say that 

youwantthesawflled, 

but tell what kind of 

work (rough or fine) 

you wish it for and the 

kind of wood; he will 

fit the saw for that 

particular work and 

also so shape the teeth that the saw will be more easily used by 

one who is not skilful in its use. 



N /V,\ ,v 



A —Handsaw 




B - Rivsaw 



Fig. 89— Teeth of Saws 



LESSON 20 

RIPPING. 

There are two ways in which a piece of this size may be 
held in the vise for ripping. Probably the better way for the 
first attempts is as shown in Figs. 90 and 91. If the piece 
were wider it would be held as shown in Figs. 184 and 185. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



79 



Place the piece well down in the vise so that it will not be 
moved by the sawing. Begin at the front edge, starting the 
saw in the same, manner as the back-saw in sawing the study- 
piece. Be sure to start 
the saw on the forward 
stroke. (See Figs. 70 
to 73.) 

The most serious 
mistake you are likely 
to make in ripping is 
to saw too far from the 
line. If you saw far 
from the line because 
you fear you will saw 
into the line you will 
not have a sufficient 
guide for the saw and 
consequently will saw 
poorly. The ripsaw 
should cut smoothly, 
therefore there is no 
need of sawing far from 
the line. You should 
plan to leave the line 
and a narrow strip at 
the side of the line. 

This strip should be as narrow as it can be and not break away 
as the sawing proceeds. This need never be more than % 3 inch 
and may be less. If in ripping where both pieces are to be 
used, the amount of waste is more than required fcr one saw 




Fig. 90 - Starting Ripsaw 



80 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 9 1— Starting Ripsaw 



reverse it as shown 
in Fig. 92. As soon 
as the saw nears the 
end of the kerf on the 
back side, reverse 
the piece again. 
This reversing of the 
piece should at first 
be done sufficiently 
often to avoid saw- 
ing on the side of 
the piece away from 
the worker. As the 
sawing becomes 
better understood, 



kerf, two kerfs 
should be made. 
Save time and 
avoid changing 
the piece in the 
vise so often by 
making both kerfs 
at the same time. 
After the saw kerf 
extends along the 
top end and a short 
distance down the 
side next to you, 
remove the piece 
from the vise and 




Fig. 92 - Piece Reversed 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



81 



the reversing need 
not be done as often. 
Continue sawing and 
reversing the piece 
until the ripping is 
completed. 

As you near the 
lower end hold the 
piece as shown in 
Fig. 93, so that the 
vise need press the 
edges but lightly 
and thus avoid bruis- 
ing them. If the rip- 
ping has been done properly 





Fig. 94- Edges cf Sawed Pieces 



Fig. 93 — Finishing Ripping 

the edges will appear as shown in 
Fig. 94. This shows the mark- 
ings made by the teeth of the saw 
at the different angles as the 
piece was reversed. 

The edges should now be 
carefully jointed. Often it is 
best to remove the face-marks 
and place one on the side oppo- 
site the chamfer after examining 
the surface to see that it is cor- 
rect; the edge should then be 
jointed to the new face-surface. 
The complete bench-hook (Fig. 
74) shows the mark changed in 
this manner. 



82 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 21 

NAILING. 

The common adzeye hammer, (Fig. 95) is the only 
hammer required for your first work. The handle is hickory 
and the head steel. Both the face and the claws are tempered. 

The face, which 
strik es the 
nails, is tem- 
pered much 
harder than the 
claws. If the 
claws were very 

hard they would be broken in use. The sides of the hammer 
head are so soft that they will bruise if struck against nail heads 
or other hard objects. 




Fig. 95 — Adz Eye Nail Hammer 




Fig. 96- Starting Nail 

Lay one of the narrow pieces upon the bench and start a 
6d wire nail as shown in Fig. 96. Drive the nail just enough 
to make it remain in place. Examine it carefully from two 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



33 



directions, as in examining the bit, (Figs. 140, 141). If the 
nail is not at right angles to the surface as seen from each direc- 
tion, move it with the 
fingers to the perpen- 
dicular, then drive it a 
very little more and ex- 
amine it again. Be 
sure to drive the nail 
but a little at a time, 
to allow of placing it 
before it is so far in 
the wood that it will 
bend when you at- 
tempt to move it. 

Start the four nails 
in this manner. The 
drawing (Fig. 75) indicates their location. 




Fig. 9 7— L ocating Nails 





Fig. 98- 



-Piece in Position 



To determine how 
farfromtheedge 
to drive them, 
place the wide 
piece on the 
narrow one and 
then judge the 
center of the 
piece (Fig. 97.) 
Mark the loca- 
tion of the nail 
with a pencil. 
Drive the 
nails so they will 



84 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



prick through just enough to keep the piece from slipping when 
placed on the edge of the wide piece as in Fig. 98. Place the 

narrow piece so that ils 
edge is even or flush, as 
it is called, with the face 
of the wide piece and 
drive one nail a little. 
Examine the piece care- 
fully and if correct drive 
another nail a little. Con- 
tinue driving the nails a 
little at a time and exam- 
ining the piece to be 
certain that it is still in 
place. After the nails 










Pig m 99 — Set ling Nail with Nail Head 



have been driven so the 
heads are flush with the 
wood, set them by using 
a nail as shown in Fig. 
99, striking it hard 
enough to drive the 
heads about % 2 inch be- 
low the surface; or nails 
may be set by using a 
nailset, as shown in 
Fig. 100. 

There are several 
styles of nailsets, the 
best for this work being 
shown in Fig. 101. 




Fig. 100— Setting Nail with Nailset 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



85 



Nail the piece on the other edge in the same manner. 
Look the bench -hook over to 

see that the nails are properly '^^ r ~^^M^^Mimi^i ^ 
set and the edges flush. If Fig. 101- Nailset 



— '- 

-,,J,..„ ^3 W^^ ^ s ^* a --~Tiiri3fj 

f— j— —^ZZ, . . Site 



/^. / 02 — Planing Joint Flush 




Fig. 103 — Withdrawing Nail 



the edges are uneven place 
the bench-hook in the vise as 
shown in Fig. 102 and plane 
a very little at the joint to 
make the pieces flush. You 
will see that it is much easier 
to smooth the joint when the 
edge projects beyond the sur- 
face than when it does not 
extend to the surface. 

If you have occasion to 
withdraw a nail, a block maybe 
placed under the head of the 
hammer as shown in Fig. 103. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




LESSON 22 

SHARPENING THE PLANE 

Now that you understand something cf how planes are 

used and the necessity of their being sharp you can try to 

sharpen them. Be- 
fore doing anything 
to remove the plane 
iron examine all the 
parts carefully so that 
you will remember 
how they are placed 
and be able to return 
them to place. 

To remove the 
plane iron grasp the 
cam lever (Fig. 104) 
with the thumb and 

finger and lift it. This will loosen the cap, which can then be 

pulled endwise and removed. Next remove the plane iron, 

place it on the 

bench and with a 

screw driver 

loosen the plane 

iron screw, (Fig. 

105). Pull the 

plane iron cap to 

the position 

showninFig.106 

and tighten the screw. Place the oilstone in the vise and grasp 

the plane iron as shown in Fig. 107. Rub it backward and 



Fig. 104- Lifting Cam Leu 




Fig. 1 05— Loosening Plane Iron Screw 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



87 




Fig. 1 06— Sliding Cap Iron 



forward on the oilstone, holding it at exactly the same angle 

throughout the stroke. 

The angle at which it should be held should be a little 

greater than that at 

which it has been 

ground, but must not 

be as great as the angle 

at which it is held in 

the plane. 

To be sure you are 

getting the correct 

angle in -whetting the 

plane bit, you may 

set the plane near the 

oilstone (Fig. 107) 

and compare the angle at which the bit stands in the plane 

with the angle at 
which you hold the 
bit while whetting 
it. You must always 
hold it at a less 
angle than the one 
at which it is held 
in the plane. 

Theanglemade 
in grinding must 
be considerably 
less than the angle 

at which it is to be whet so that in whetting you need not 

remove much metal. 




Fig. 1 07— Whetting Plane Bit 



88 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



After you have become accustomed to using the planes 
and are strong enough to cut a wide shaving, the plane bit 
may be nearly straight across, but in your 
first work the bit should be quite round- 
ing as shown in Fig. 108. In order to 
produce this rounding end hold the iron 
at the same angle thruout the stroke, but 
first press on one edge and then on the 
other edge. 

In sharpening planes as in all other 
grinding and whetting of tools the posi- 
tion of the edge on the abraiding'surface is 



Fig. 1 08 
End of Plane Bit 



often altered to avoid inequalities in the 
surface. This usually necessitates the 
holding of the plane bit at an angle to 
the edges of the oilstone. If the surface 
is very rough or hollowed by long use 
or by careless whetting, the plane bit 
may be held nearly parallel with an edge. 
This will not give as good results and if 
time can be spared for truing the stone, 
it should be done. 

At first you can examine the edge 
by looking for the fine, smooth part 
between where the stone is cutting and 
the extreme edge. As soon as this line 
disappears, test the edge first by draw- 
ing your finger on the flat side of the 
bit out over the edge as indicated by 
Fig. 109. This is to see if the edge 




Fig. 1 09 
Feeling for Wire Edge 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



89 



has been turned or a wire edge formed. A wire edge is a fine 
thin bit of the edge which is so thin that it bends or turns to 
either side as the tool is rubbed over the oilstone. 

Fig. 110 indicates the form of a wire edge and how it is 
produced. This wire edge is usually so fine that it is scarcely 
visible. It is very much exagger- 
ated in the drawing in order to indi- 
cate its shape. So lcng as the wire 
edge remains the tool will not cut 
well. It may be broken off by rub- 
bing on a piece of wood or on the 
oilstone. Usually the best way to 

remove a wire edge is to by the plane bit on the flat side and 
move it against the edge as shown in Fig. 111. This may not 




Fig. 110— Sketch of Wire Edge 



remove the wire edge the first time trying. 



Be very careful in 
rubbing the 
plane bit on 
the flat side to 
hold it down 
flat on the 
stone, for if 
you do not, a 
small angle 
will be made 
on this side of 
the edge 
which will do much harm. It will likely turn the edge as indi- 
cated by the sketch. (Fig. 112.) 

Hold the iron again as in Fig. 107 and move it forward, 
pressing very lightly and being careful to hold it at the same 




Fig. 1 1 1 — Removing Wire Edge 



90 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



^^^^smssmsBBs 



Fig. 1 1 2 — Wire Edge Reversed 



angle you did in whetting it. This will again turn the edge 

as indicated by the sketch, Fig. 110. Continue to rub the 

edge lightly, holding it first as in Fig. 107 and then as in Fig. 

112 until the wire edge is removed. Examine it often both 

by looking at it and by drawing 
the finger over it as in Fig. 109. 
Sometimes you may need to 
draw the finger over each side 
in order to find out which way 

the edge is turned. Watch carefully to see that the wire edge 

is removed entirely across the end. It often breaks away at the 

center without breaking away near 

the corners. 

As soon as you think the edge 

is sharp, hold the iron as shown 

in Fig. 113 and test it by drawing 

the ball of the thumb over it. If 

it is sharp it should easily cut the 

outer coating of the skin. If it 

does not appear to be sharp, rub 

it again on the oilstone, this time 

rubbing lightly but at the same 

angle as at first. Another way is 

to test the edge on a piece of pine. 

If the cut shows a clear, glassy 

surface, the edge is sharp. This 

is a good test after testing it on 

your thumb, so do not depend 

upon the wood test but learn to test it with your thumb, for it 

is much easier and quicker. 




Fig. 113- Testing Edge 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



91 



After finishing on the oilstone the edge may be improved 
by rubbing lightly upon a piece of leather (Fig. 114) as it 
was rubbed on the oilstone, except that it is lifted from the 
leather or strop on the return stroke and is rubbed away from 
the edge as indicated by 
the arrow. 

When you are sure 
that the edge is sharp, 
place the plane iron cap 
in position, its lower end 
about Vii 2 inch to Vio inch 
above the cutting edge. 
Put the iron in place and 
the cap over it and press 
down the cam lever. 

Hold the plane as shown in Fig. 11 and turn the milled thumb- 
nut until the cutting edge projects a very little below the 
bottom of the plane. Try it on a piece of scrap wood and 
keep turning the thumb-nut or adjusting the lever, Fig. 11, 
until it cuts a fine shaving at the center of the plane bottom. 




Fig. 1 1 4— Stropping Plane 



LESSON 23 

GRINDING THE PLANE BIT. 

After the bit has been whetted several times the end 
becomes so blunt that it cannot be easily sharpened in this 
manner. There is so much metal to be removed that it 
requires too much time and the angle at which you must hold 
it will be so near the angle at which the iron is held in the 
plane that it will not cut when sharp. 



92 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




To remove this large amount of metal the iron is held on 
a revolving stone which cuts much faster than the oilstone. 
The iron should be held free-hand against the grindstone as 

shown in Fig. 
115. 

Do not at- 
tempt to grind 
the edge sharp 
enough for use, 
but remove the 
larger part of 
metal, and then 
refine the edge 
with the oil- 
stone. Be sure 
to have plenty 
of water on the grindstone so that the plane bit will not be 
injured by the heating of the thin edge while grinding. Be 
sure to wipe all moisture off the plane bit and cap iron before 
returning them to the plane. 

LESSON 24 

CUTTING BOARD 

Fig. 116 is a drawing of a cutting board with plain edges. 
Fig. 117 illustrates a cutting board with chamfered edges. 
The two are typical of boards used in cutting bread or meat 
and, in larger sizes, for kneading bread, molding pastry, etc. 
The processes used in making them are much the same what- 
ever the size, unless so large that two or more pieces of 
lumber are required for one board. 



Fig. 1 1 5— Grinding Plane Iron 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



93 



If you have, before beginning on this board, made the first 
study piece, (Fig. 66) and the bench-hook (Fig. 74) you 

should be able . — . 

to make a cut- *— 1 

ting board, or |* j£- =>| ^y 

any similar ,. 

board, as well 
as a good me- 
chanic. 

M a k e a 00 

complete scale 
drawing of the 
board you wish 
to make. Be 
careful to fol- 




Fig. 1 1 7— Cutting Board 



Fig. 1 1 6 —Cutting Board 

low all directions and when you 
come to a reference, look up and 
study it until you fully under- 
stand it. 

Select the best side of the 
board for the face-side and plane 
it true, testing and planing as in 
Lesson 4 on planing the first sur- 
face of the study piece. Follow 
directions in Lessons 4 to 17, 
excepting as changes are desir- 
able on account of the size. In 
planing a wide piece it is usually 
better to place it across the bench 
and plane crosswise of the grain 



94 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



as shown in Fig. 118. The plane is moved straight across 
the piece, but held at an angle. The amount of the angle 
and the direction is determined by the way of the grain. 
Cross planing should usually proceed very systematically and 
after each cross planing the piece should be turned and 
planed in the usual manner. 

If the board is in wind, you should plane diagonally a part 

of the time, planing most 
at the high corners. 

The second edge is 
worked in the same man- 
ner as the second edge 
of the bench-hook piece, 
(Lesson 15) unless the 
piece is too wide for your 
gauge. Some gauges 
have long beams ar- 
ranged for wide pieces, 
but you will have so little 
use for a large one that 
"*~?r~~^~~~~:-'-~- -:~--~~~___ you had better work the 

B «p * I piece without the gauge 

Fig. 1 1 8— Cross Planing if yours is too short . Lay 

the piece on the bench, 
and mark the width at each end as shown in Fig. 119. If you 
have a straight edge, you can draw a pencil line from mark to 
mark. This will be necessary if you are to rip the piece. 
Figs. 184 and 185 show how to hold a wide piece in ripping. 
If there is but little to be dressed off, you can plane from end 
to end until the edge has been worked to the line or the two marks. 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



95 



Next gauge the thickness of the board and dress the oppo- 
site side. In working such pieces where usefulness is not 
impaired by variation in thickness it is usual not to be particu- 
lar to make them the exact thickness the drawing calls for, but 
to set the gauge to 
the thinnest cor- 
ner and work the 
piece to that thick- 
ness. 

Finish the ends 
the same as the 
ends of the bench- 
hook (Lesson 16). 
Be sure to draw the 
knife lines entirely 
around them and plane exactly to the lines. This finishes the 
board, unless it is to be chamfered, with the exception of sand- 
papering. Directions for sandpapering are given in lesson 25. 
If you wish to chamfer the board read the directions for cham- 
fering the sides of the bench-hook (Lesson 18). 




Fig. 1 1 9 — Measuring Width of Board 



LESSON 25 

SANDPAPERING 

There are a number of kinds and grades of sandpaper. 
The only kind required for your first work is what is called 
flint paper or sandpaper. The grades you require are, Nos. 
l/^> 1» % and 0. There are coarser and finer grades than 
these, but they are not needed for ordinary work. No. l l / 2 
is coarser than No. 1. No. appears to be almost smooth. 
These papers are made by covering the paper with a coating 



96 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

of glue, and then with a coating of some abrasive sub- 
stance, such as ground flint. The paper is very tough, and if 
properly held will stand a large amount of rubbing. 

Before the paper is used, the surface seems to cut the 
hand it is rubbed over. A little use of the paper on wood 
partly fills the cutting surface with wood dust and makes it cut 
smoother. Sandpaper which has been used is often better than 
new for finishing. You will find it an essential to the best work as 
well as a matter of economy to use sandpaper until it is worn out. 




Fig. 120 — Sandpapering with Block 

To do this you should settle upon a certain size piece and 
always tear the paper to that size unless the nature of the work 
prevents. The small pieces of the original sheet are used 
either on a block or in the hand. When a block is used the 
paper should not be fastened to it but held in position by the 
hand as shown in Fig. 120. There are many places in which 
a block should not be used. A block is as a rule used only 
upon large surfaces. If no block is used, the sandpaper is 
manipulated with the hand and fingers. Whether used on a 
block or in the hand, it should be torn in the same manner 
and to the same size. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 97 

The ordinary size of a sheet of sandpaper is 9 inches by 
10 j4 inches, and it should usually be torn into fcur pieces, 
each Ay 2 inches by S% inches. This is done by laying a 
sheet, rough side down, upon the bench top, placing a back- 
saw or some other small saw across the sheet at the center and 
then pulling up at one corner, as shown in Fig. 121. Do not 
use the rule in determining the center of the sheet, but plac^ 




Fig. 121 — Tearing Sandpaper 

the saw as near the center as you can judge. Tear each half 
again and you will have four pieces of proper size for use. 

Just what grade of paper should be used cannot be stated 
until one knows the kind of wood, and how smooth the planing 
has been done. Usually No. 1 or No. % is coarse enough 
for surfaces and edges, and No. \]/ 2 or No. 1 for ends. If 
the work is to be nicely finished these should be followed by 
finer grades. Sometimes this is continued until No. is used, 
but usually two grades are sufficient. Only by experimenting 



98 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

will you be able to select the proper grades for your work. 
Soft wood usually requires finer paper than hard wood. To 
produce fine finish for polishing No. 00 paper is required. 

In sandpapering the cutting board (Fig. 116) finish first 
the under and then the upper surface. Use the paper on a 
block as shown in Fig. 120, moving it lengthwise of the 
grain. Be very careful not to woik too near the ends or edges. 
If you rub much too near the edges, the outline will be 




Fig. 1 22 — Sandpapering Surface with Hand 

spoiled, for the paper cuts faster at an edge than in the center 
of a surface. 

After you have done what you can with the sandpaper on 
a block, lay the block aside and take the piece in your hand as 
shown in Fig. 122. Examine the surfaces especially near the 
edges and smooth any spots that were not properly smoothed 
with the sandpaper on the block. Next hold the board and 
paper as shown in Figs. 123 and 124 and smooth the edges. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



99 



Be careful not to round the corners, as this is a mark of a 
shiftless workman. To avoid this the hand must not rest flat 
upon the edge but at an angle as shown in Fig. 124. Do not 




Fig. 1 23 — Sandpapering Edge with Hand 



retain the fin- 
gers inthe same 
place on the 
sandpaper, but 
change their 
position often. 
Sometimes the 
sandpaper is 
held as shown 
in Fig. 125, but 
usually a block 
is not required 




Fig. 1 24 — Sandpapering Edge with Hand 



100 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



on the edges, and if used it should be thinner than the edge to be 
sandpapered. Fig. 132 shows such a block. Sometimes the 
work is held in the vise and the sandpaper is held with both 
hands as shown in Fig. 126. 

The chamfer is sandpapered in the same manner. Because 
a chamfer is narrow and because it is important that the edges 

remain sharp, much care is 
needed to sandpaper it 
properly. Fig. 127 shows 
how this is done. 

In your first attempt at 
sandpapering, stop fre- 
quently and examine the 
wood with the rule and the 
trysquare and you will note 
with surprise how rapidly 
the surface is changed by 
the sandpapering. If you do 
the work properly, the sur- 
faces will be as square and 
true to the edges as before. 
If by mistake or carelessness 
you have injured the true 
outline of the edges, you 
had better replane the surfaces and try sandpapering again. Be 
very careful not to make such a mistake, for after sandpaper has 
been used, particles of grit remaining in the pores of the wood 
will rapidly dull the plane. 

In sandpapering a small end, place a piece of sandpaper 
on a smooth surface and hold the piece vertically and firmly 




Fig. 1 25 - Sandpapering Edge with 
Navvcw Block 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



101 




upon it as shown in Fig. 128. Notice that the fingers are close 

to the lower end. Move the piece from you, lifting it from the 

paper on the return 

stroke. Go slowly, be- 
ing careful that the top 

end does not move about. 

Test the end with the 

trysquare and you will 

discover that the sand- 
paper cuts faster on the 

edge farthest from you. 

This necessitates turning 

the piece after every few 

strokes. Do not attempt 

to remove much material 

in this manner, for if you 

do the end will be 

rounded and there is no easy way of squaring it. 

In sandpapering cylindrical pieces, the paper is folded 

around the piece and 
held as shown in Fig. 
129 and moved length- 
wise of the piece. 
Sometimes it is better 
to revolve the piece in 
the paper at first. The 
finishing should always 
be done by moving the 
paper with the grain of 
Fig. 127— Sandpapering Chamfer the wood. One diffi- 



Fig. 126- 



- Sandpapering 
Both Hands 



with 




102 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



culty about sandpapering such work is to avoid slanting the 
surfaces near the ends; therefore rub the paper over the 
ends less than you do along the center. In all sandpapering, 
watch to see how much the paper is cutting. 




Fig. 1 2 '8 '— Sandpapering End 

The proper grade of paper to use depends so largely upon the 
kind of wood, size of cylinder and the planing that you must deter- 
mine the grade by trial . 
Begin with too fine 
rather than too coarse a 
paper. If it does not cut 
down the plane marks, 
try a coarser grade. Use 
the coarser paper only 
enough to remove the 
plane marks. Follow 
with finer grades until 
the desired smoothness 
Fig. 129— Sandpapering Cylinder is produced. 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



103 



The sandpapering of a rounded edge follows much the 
same plan as the sandpapering of a cylinder. It consists of 
two distinct operations — first, the removing of the plane 
marks and second, the smoothing of the grain of the wood. 

As the paper cannot be folded around the edge without in- 
juring the surfaces it is held on a block and the block moved 
across the plane marks at the same time it is moved length- 
wise. See Fig. 130. This has much the same result as roll- 
ing the cylinder in 
the folded sheet of 
paper. 

After the plane 
marks have been re- 
moved in this way 
(Fig. 130)the edge 
is rubbed length- 
wise with the sand- 
paper first on the 
block and then in 
the hand. More than 
one grade of paper will be required to give a proper finish. 

As you work with sandpaper you should watch the appear- 
ance of the surface to learn how the different grains of wood 
are affected by the rubbing. You should compare the effect 
of sandpapering on hard wood and on soft, on end grain and 
lengthwise of the grain. Notice also how the paper cuts the 
medullary rays of oak and the porous grain about the large rays. 

In sandpapering woods having a hard close grain, alternat- 
ing with a soft porous grain, the sandpaper must be used with- 
out a block, for a block will cause the soft porous grain to be 




Fig. 130 — Sandpapering Round Edge 



104 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



cut below the harder grain and a proper finish will be impos- 
sible. For such surfaces all sandpapering must be with the 
sandpaper carefully folded beneath the fingers and nearly all 
the rubbing done upon the firm parts of the surface. This 
requires so much skill that woods having great contrast in grains 
should not be used in elementary school work. Such use is 
certain to give incorrect ideas of finishing and to do much harm. 
Lastly and most important, see how little rubbing, care- 
fully done, will produce the smooth satiny surface suitable for 
receiving the finish. He who gets the result with the fewest 
motions is the best workman. 



LESSON 26 

SANDPAPER BLOCK 

Fig. 131 illustrates a rectangular block for use on flat sur- 
faces. See Fig. 120. The block with the thin edge (Fig. 
132), may also be used on a flat surface, 
but is especially adapted for narrow spaces 
or edges. 

Fig. 133 will be found convenient for use 
in corners and in smooth- 
ing rounded ends after 
they have been whittled. 
Fig. 134 is for large 
hollows or internal curve s . 
All of these forms should 
be carefully made, all surfaces being straight 
and square, true angles or curves. Follow 
the directions given for planing surfaces, 
ends and edges in first lessons. Block fofjsfon Edge 




Fig. 131 
Rectangular Block 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



105 



These blocks are usually made about 4% inches long, 2% 
inches wide and Ja inch thick. The paper should not be 
fastened to the block, but held in 
place by the hand. 

Sometimes a soft pad is placed 
between the block and the paper, 
but generally this is not best. A 
pad makes possible the smoothing 
of uneven surfaces without working 
^ I them down 

BPWp(| 9 to a true sur- 

'1 face - 

This is 
m often an ad- 




Fig. 1 33— Block for Use in 
Corners and in Small Curves 



Fig. 134— Block for 
Use in Large Curves 



vantage on cheap commercial work, but 
usually should not be used in school 
work. The straight smooth block, if 
properly used, will produce a better 
surface, especially on woods having a 



coarse grain such as oak or mahogany. 

LESSON 27 

COUNTING BOARD 

The counting board is scarcely more than a study piece, 
for such boards are so seldom used that their value is really 
nothing. 

As a study piece the counting board is of considerable 
value if it is made according to the drawing. (Fig. 136.) 
Do not make it less than 1 1 inches long, for if you attempt to 



106 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



plane a piece which is much less than 11 inches long before you 
have a better understanding of the principles of planing, you will 
likely form bad habits and get erroneous ideas of using the plane. 



Fig. 135- Counting Board 

If you have been very successful in end planing you can 
cut the corners as indicated by the dotted line on the draw- 
ing. If you wish to do this, read all that is said about cutting 
corners in Lesson 29. 



H 


nf— 






H 


/ o 


O O C^O o o 


O 


o o 


o 


o 


O O O^K) O O 


o 


O O 


o 


o 


£® O O O o o 


o 


O O 


O 


o 


O O G^rO O O 

,„ o jd c2b o o 


o 
o 


O o 
O o 


O 
O 



$ 



Fig. 136— Counting Board 

The chamfering is done as directed in Lesson 18. Be 
sure to make every chamfer straight and of correct size. Keep 
all the corners sharp. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



107 



To locate the holes, draw pencil gauge lines parallel with 
the face-edge. Lay off on one of these lines the spacing for the 
holes and with a trysquare and knife draw short lines across 
each gauge line, locating the holes. If this is done properly, 
there will be exactly fifty places marked for boring, besides 
the five tally holes at the top. Lesson 28 gives directions for 
boring. 

LESSON 28 

BORING 

There are other things requiring attention in boring holes 
besides making the brace go around. If you will study each 
thoroughly and in its proper order you will soon bore holes 
quite as well as the 
ordinary mechan- 
ic , though you may 
not work as rap- 
idly. 

First examine 
the bit and learn 
the purpose of 
each part. The 

square upper end, or tange, fits into the bit brace, and the 
round part or shank, gives length- so that deep holes can 
be bored. The common auger bit and the dowel bit differ 

only in length. Dowel bits, 
being easier for the beginner 
to use, may be used in all bor- 
ing not requiring the longer 
bits. There are many shapes 




Fig. 1 37— Bit-brace 




108 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



and sizes of bits but at present we will consider only the 

auger bits. 

There are three important parts at the cutting end of the 

bit (Fig. 138). The screw B 
helps to place the bit and pulls 
it into the wood. The spurs 
A A cut across the grain of the 
wood and the lips CC cut at 
the bottom of the hole. 

All bits are held in the 
brace in the same manner. By 
turning the milled sleeve at 
the lower end of the brace 
(Fig. 137) the jaws are opened 
to receive the tange and shank. 




Fig. 139 -Setting Bit 

The sleeve is then turned in the oppo- 
site direction until the bit is held tight. 
The placing of the screw is of con- 
siderable importance. In order to see 
the point and the lines the bit is held 
obliquely as shown in Fig. 139, but 
before pressing the screw into the wood 
the position is changed to vertical 
(Fig. 140). Then turn the brace not 
more than once in the direction in 
which the hands of a watch move. 
Observe the position of the bit and 
brace. Are the angles formed with 




Fig. 1 4 0— Boring 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



102 



the surface of the piece right angles? 
eye place the trysquare as in Fig. 142. 
same position and step to the end as 
in Fig. 141. 

Examine the bit again looking for 
the right angles the same as before. 
Move the trysquare to the side and 
see if you judged correctly. Turn the 
brace another turn and repeat the two 
tests. Be careful to examine the bit 
from just two positions, one at the end 
and one at the side of the piece. Con- 
tinue turning the brace and examining 
to see that it is boring at right angles 
to the surface until the hole is com- 
pleted. Each succeeding hole should 
require less examination, until two or 
three changes of position are ampl 



After judging with your 
Hold the brace in the 





Fig. 14 1 — Boring 

e. Use the trysquare 
less and less until you 
can do the boring with- 
out it. Bore the holes 
until the screw pricks 
through, then turn the 
piece over and finish 
the holes from the op- 
posite side. Be quite 
as careful in finishing 
as in starting the holes. 



Fig. 142 — Try-square at Side of Bit 



110 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 29 

BREAD BOARD 

The first work on Fig. 143 is the same as on Fig. 116. 
Next, the end is laid out by locating the four points at the end 
and edges according to the drawing (Fig. 
144 ) and drawing knife lines to these points. 
To use the trysquare, hold it as shown in 
Fig. 145, where the head at the blade 
touches the piece. Do not attempt to hold 
it without having the head in contact with 
the edge. 

Lines may be drawn on but one face or 
on both surfaces and edges. The lines 
on the edges may be drawn with the 
Fig. 143 — Bread Board 





Fig. 144 Drawing cf Breed Board 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



111 




Fig. 145 — Lining Corner 



trysquare in the ordinary manner cr the gauge may be set and 
pencil lines drawn as shown in Fig. 146. This affords points 
at which lines may 
be drawn on the 
back or under sur- 
face. 

Saw the corners 
to near the knife 
lines, holding the 
piece on the bench- 
hook as shown in 
Fig. 147. After 
sawing, plane to 

the lines the same as in planing an end. You will notice 
that the more slant to the corner, the less need there is for the 

plane to be 
held at an 
angle. If 
the edge is 
tapered 
very much 
the plane 
should be 
held paral- 
lel with the 
edge. Fig. 
148 shows 
how the 
piece is held in planing the corner. This piece may have 
square edges, or chamfered edges. If they are to be cham- 




Fig. 146 — Gauging Corner 



112 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 147 — Sawing Corner 



fered, follow the directions in Lesson 18. A common mistake 
in chamfering such pieces is to make the chamfers too large. 

They should be not more 
than y A inch. Be care- 
ful to use a well sharp- 
ened pencil point in the 
gauge and then work 
exactly to the lines. If 
you wish to have a hole 
by which to hang this 
board, locate it by 
measuring as indicated 
in the drawing, Fig. 144. 
Bore the hole, follow- 
ing the directions given 
Fig. 148— Planing Corner j n Lesson 28. 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



113 



LESSON 30 

ROUNDING AN EDGE 

Fig. 149 is a view of a rounded edge. Such edges may 
be used on boxes and many other articles as well as on the 
breadboard. (Fig. 143.) 

To round the edge, after it has been squared, draw a 
pencil line along the center with a gauge and a line on each 
surface, with the gauge set at the same space. The rounded 
surfaces are formed with a plane used and held as in making a 
chamfer. ( Figs. 83 to 85 . ) 

L 




Fig. 1 4 9 — Rounded Edge 



Fig. 150 — Section of 
Round Edge 

The difficulty in 
rounding an edge is 
the opposite of that 
in chamfering. 
While making a chamfer you found it difficult to make the sur- 
face straight from line to line; in making the rounded edge, you 
will make it too straight, unless you attend closely to the form. 
Fig. 150 illustrates the difficulty by showing an edge, the 
darkened portion indicating the material to be removed in 
rounding it. By examining this illustration you will see that 
very little of the stock is cut away near the lines and that much 
less is removed than would be if a chamfer were made between 
the same lines. 



11.4 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 






J ■^ UU L 



Fig. 151— Shelf 



LESSON 31 

SHELF 

The making of a shelf requires much 
the same directions as the making of a 
cutting board. Usually a shelf, be- 
cause longer, requires additional direc- 
tions. Before making a shelf read the 
directions for planing in Lessons 1 to 
11 and those for making the cutting 
board. The only additional directions 
you will require are those for planing 
long pieces, trimming corners and 
planing long curves. 

When a piece is too long to be 
planed at one stroke with the foot in 
one position, one of two methods may 
be used. If it is an edge, and some- 
times when it is a wide board, which is 
to be planed, the plane is started in 
the usual way and then kept moving 
by taking one or more steps so that 
the plane passes the entire length of 
the piece. The other method, which 
is usually followed in planing long 
wide surfaces, is to plane them by 
sections. This is done by beginning 
on one corner and working across; then 
planing another section, and still 
another, in a similar manner, until the 
entire surface has been planed. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



115 



Fig. 152 represents the first section planed. Fig. 153 
represents the second section planed. Fig. 154 represents the 




Fig. 1 52— First Section Planed 

surface after it has been planed the entire length, the shaded 
portions indicate where the plane was raised and lowered. The 




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Fig. 1 53 —Second Section Planed 



darkest places show the low spots in the surface of the board. 
These are removed by again going over the surface systemati- 




Fig. 1 54 — Third Section Planed 



cally. In finishing the surface the plane should be set very 
fine and the shavings taken so carefully that there will be no 



116 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



visable marks where the plane begins to cut or where the shaving 
runs out. 

The shelf may be dressed on both surfaces in the same 
manner. The edges should be finished by taking a shaving 
the entire length. In sawing pieces of this length they may 




Fig. 155 — Sawing End i 



be held on the bench by using two bench-hooks as shown in 
Fig. 155. Finish the ends the same as the large piece of the 
bench-hook (Lesson 16). The corners of this shelf may be 
cut off where indicated by the dotted line; being done as in 
making Fig. 143. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



117 



LESSON 32 

SHELF 

The new feature of this shelf (Fig. 156) is the curved 
edge. The edge may be lined either free hand on the sur- 
face, by making and using a pattern, by use of a strip of wood 
and two nails, or a nail and a pencil, as shown in Fig. 157. 




Fig. 156 -Shelf 



The nearer straight you wish the curve the greater the length 
of the stick or bar must be. In your first attempts at drawing 
such curves, you may guess at the length of the rod. The 




Fig. 157 — Drawing Circle 

curve made by the pencil in moving over the shelf is called an 
arc of a circle. The distance from the pencil to the nail is the 
radius of the arc. 



118 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



This distance or radius is one-half the diameter of a com- 
plete circle having the same curvature as the shelf edge. 

If you have a narrow rip- 
saw with a wide set to the 
teeth, you can begin at one 
end of the shelf and rip along 
the curve, ripping off the 
waste material as shown in 
Fig. 158. Notice that the rip- 
saw is held nearly horizontal. 
If you have no such saw, draw 
straight lines tangent to the 
curve and rip to them. 

After ripping, smooth the 
edge with a plane as shown in 
Fig. 159. You will find the 
plane a good tool for working 
Fig. 1 58— Ripping Curve such curves. 

Be careful 
to plane to the 
line, for any 
short variation 
from the true 
curve will show 
badly. This 
shelf may be 
chamfered as 
shown in Fig. 
117 cr rounded 
as shown in 
Fig- 149. Fig. 159— Planing Curve 





WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



119 



LESSON 33 

MANTEL SHELF 

If you have made successfully all the pieces up to Lesson 
30, you should be able to make this shelf. Work each piece 
to the sizes given in the drawing, (Fig. 162) 




Fig. 1 60 -Mantel Shelf 







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Fig. 161 — Testing A ngle of Brackets 



120 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



By making the shelf supports or brackets in one piece as 
shown in Fig. 163 and then cutting them apart, you will be 

able to make them nicer and in 
less time than by working each 
piece separately. 

The holes in the back for fasten- 
ing to the wall should be 1 6 inches 
from center to center. This is to 
make the holes correspond with 
the centers of the studding in an 
ordinary frame house. In any 
change of size or form which you 
plan you should keep this space 
the same or use some multiple 



Fig. 1 63 



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Fig. 1 62— Mantel Shelf 



of this space. The outline may 
be modified in many ways and 
yet the shelf be made with such 
tools and processes as you 
already understand. 

In fastening the parts to- 
gether, first fasten the brackets 
to the back and then fasten the 
shelf to the back and brackets. 
Test the position of the brackets 
by placing a trysquare in each 
corner as shown in Fig. 161. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



121 



LESSON 34 

SWING BOARD 

A swing board though apparently # simple thing to make 
and one which can be undertaken at any time is by no means 
as simple as it appears and should not be undertaken until all 
the work up to Lesson 29 has been successfully accomplished. 




Fig. 1 64 — Swing Board 

In making the board (Fig. 164) follow the directions for 

planing out of wind, jointing edges, etc. given in these lessons. 

To work the oval edges draw pencil lines with the gauge 




Fig. 1 65 — Swing Board 



122 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

on the two edges y 2 inch from the face-surface and on the 
face surface 1 y 2 inches from each edge. These lines are at 
the edges of the shaded portion in the drawing, (Fig. 165). 
Form the edges by planing, following the directions for round- 
ing edges given in Lesson 30. 

Lay out the holes and notches at the ends. Bore the holes 
from each side. (See Lesson 28.) Saw out the triangular 
pieces, using a rip-saw and sawing on the lines with great care, 
as the surface is left just as sawed. Notice that the V shaped 
opening is formed so that the rope slips through a space nar- 
rower than the diameter of the hole. 

LESSON 35 

FOOTSTOOL 

This is the most simple form of footstool. Its beauty lies 
in simple outline and perfect finish. Be sure to select lumber 
which will finish nicely. Oak with large medullary rays is 
suitable. Whatever wood is used, the top should be quarter 
sawed so that it will not warp. 

In making the top, follow the directions given for making 
the cutting board, (Fig. 116). Be careful to make the sur- 
face true and smooth. After planing it as directed in making 
the cutting board there may still be uneven spots or torn 
grain. Sharpen your plane, set it as fine as you can and go 
over the top surface and edges systematically. 

If this does not make it sufficiently smooth for sandpaper- 
ing you must use a scraper. Fcr directions for using a scraper 
see Lesson 36. 

The legs are first squared in one long piece and then cut 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



123 



to length. The scraping and sandpapering should be done 
after the doweling or inserting of the screws has been finished, 
for, in this latter work, the surfaces may be marred and if the 
scraping has been done, it would need to be done over again. 

Either of two methods of securing the legs may be used. 
The more common way is to use dowels, as shown in Fig. 170. 

If dowels are 
to be used place 
the legs in posi- 
tion, one at a time 
as shown in Fig. 
167, the face- 
marks toward the 
inside, and make 
two marks at the 
end of each outer 
surface of each 
leg, holding the 
knife as shown, 
mak ing the 
marks clearly on 
both the legs and 
the top. Also number each leg and the corresponding place 
on the top so as to replace them in the same positions. 

Set the gauge to each mark as shown in Fig. 168 and 
draw lines across the ends of the legs. Place the knife point 
in each mark on the top and draw lines as shown in Fig. 169. 

The points at which these lines cross, on both legs and top 
indicate places at which to bore the holes for the dowels. 

Bore the holes in the top as deep as you can and not leave 




Fig. 1 66— Footstool 



124 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



a mark from the spur of the bit. Bore the holes in the ends 
of the legs about 2 inches deep. Glue the dowels into the top 

and allow the glue to dry, then 
glue them into the legs. Fig. 
170 shows them in place and the 
leg ready to be driven down tight 
to the top. It is often easier to 
force the dowels into place by 
clamping instead of driving. If 
but one dowel is used in each 
leg it may be located in the same 
manner as the screw. (Fig. 171) 
The other method of securing 
the legs is shown in Fig. 171. 
Screw fastenings of this sort may 
be used in many places. Fig. 




Fig. 1 6 7 — Marking for Dowels 

172 is a drawing showing how 
the leg and screw would appear 
if cut through vertically at the 
center of the screw. Drawings 
of this nature are called sec- 
tional drawings or sections. 
Fig. 173 shows the leg with 
the hole bored, the screw and 
the hollow pin which is driven 
over the screw. 



w 



Fig. 1 6 8— Setting Gauge 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



125 




Fig. 169— Lining for Dowel 



After. the end of the leg has been squared the center is 

located and a hole is bored large enough to receive the head of 

the screw and just deep 

enough to allow the head 

to rest on the bottom of 

the hole. It is essential 

that the hole be of the 

required depth. 

A piece of metal as 

thick as will enter the slot 

in the screw head is then 

driven into the bottom of 

the hole. This is shown 

in Fig. 172. It may be driven to place by setting a screw 

over it and driving on the 
point of the screw. This 
piece of metal is to keep the 
screw from turning in the 
leg as the leg is screwed to 
the top. 

The hollow pin must be 
glued in place. Place glue 
on the sides of the hole and 
also on the pin. Place the 
screw in position, being cer- 
tain that the slot in the 
screw head fits over the 
piece of metal. Drive the 

hollow pin down firmly to the head of the screw, using a block 

with a hole in it to admit the projecting part of the screw. 





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Fig, 170 - Inserting Dowels 



126 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



After the glue has dried, the legs may be screwed to^the top. 
Bore holes for the screws and use grease or soap in them. The 



Fig. 1 71 — Screw in End 
ttftp of Leg 




Fig. 1 72 — Section Through 
Screw. Pin and Leg 





Fig. 1 73 —Parts Ready to be 
Put Together 



positions for holes are located by measuring from the edges or 
by drawing diagonals and measuring from each corner. 

This footstool may be made with a soft wood top covered 
with leather. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



127 



LESSON 36 

SCRAPING 

It is seldom that the surface of hardwood can be properly 
sandpapered directly following the hand planing. 

Fig. 174 illustrates a common 
cabinet scraper. It is not a dif- 
ficult tool to use when once you 
have seen some one use it prop- 
erly, but it is very hard to keep 
in order. It may be held as 
shown in Figs. 175 and 176 and pulled towards you, cutting 
a very fine shaving. 

Sometimes it is moved in the opposite direction as shown 




Fig. 1 74— Cabinet Scraper 




in Figs. 177 
WF and 178, but 
for your work 
and small 
j ^# hands, you 

had better 
pull it toward 
you and if it is 
necessary to 
work in the 
opposite di- 
rection, you 
should usually 

either change your position or the position of the piece. You 
can change the angle at which it is held in crder to avoid its 
"chattering" or making small irregularities in the surface. 




Fig. 1 75 — Using Scraper. Pulling 



128 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 1 76 — Using Scraper, Pulling 



Notice that the angle it makes with the surface of the board is 
the same in all the pictures. This angle should not vary and 
should be as nearly a right angle as will allow the scraper to cut. 

The more firmly you 
hold the scraper, at the 
proper angle, the bet- 
ter it will cut and the 
longer it will keep 
sharp. 

It should cut a fine 
shaving without tearin g 
the surface on any 
hard wood, whether 
moved with the grain, 
as in planing or against the grain. It is because it cuts smoothly 
against the grain that it is so useful for woods which have grain 
in both directions. Only by using a tool which cuts smoothly 
against the grain can 
such woods be properly 
finished. 

In your use of the 
scraper, be careful to 
see exactly how and 
where it is cutting. Do 
not scrape more than is 
necessary. Someplaces 
will require no scrap- 
ing; some spots of torn grain will require a great deal. Some- 
times you will need to scrape places which are smooth, in order 
to make the entire surface level. A most important matter is 




Fig. 177 Using Scraper, Risking 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



129 



to avoid scraping the soft grain lower than the hard grain. 

Fig. 179 shows a surface with lines drawn to indicate the various 

positions of the scraper in finishing it. The lines are placed on 

different forms of grain 

and at different angles 

to indicate how the 

scraper should be 

placed and moved at 

these places. Lines 

which cross indicate 

that the scraper should 

beusedatthetwo angles 

in succession. Some- Fl ^ , 78 __ Using Sc raper t Pushing 

times the change should 

be made at each stroke, but usually not so often. After surface 

has been properly scraped, sandpaper it as directed in Lesson 2 5 . 





Fig. 1 79 — Piece Lined to Show Method of Scraping 



130 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 37 

TABORET 

There are two results to be gained in the making of a tab- 
oret. The first and by far the most important is the learning 
of something, the second and far less important is the taboret. 
If you are to get the greatest good from the work, you must 
be careful about the design of the taboret. If you attempt to 

make one which is too diffi- 
cult, you will fail to learn 
what you ought, and also 
acquire habits which will hin- 
der you in future. 

The taboret illustrated in 
Fig. 180 is difficult enough 
for the first attempt. It 
requires no tools with which 
you are not familiar and you 
should make correctly every 
surface and joint. 

It makes little difference 
which parts are made first. 
Usually you will succeed bet- 
ter by making first the top, 
Carefully study the drawing 




Fig. 1 80— Taboret 



then the rails and last, the legs 
(Fig. 181) before beginning work. 

The top is made the same as the cutting board, Fig. 117. 
Chamfering may be omitted. 

The rails may be made in either of three ways. One way 
is to dress up a piece a little more than four times the length 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



131 



of one rail and as thick and 
wide as the rails are to be. 
The ends of this piece are 
then squared, to be sure 
that they are exactly correct 
as tested from both side and 
edge, as shown in Figs. 80 
and 81. Unless you have 
a knife line to work to, the 
end will not make a good 
joint against the side of the 
leg. Be sure to follow all 
the directions given for end 
planing in Lesson 16. 

After squaring the ends, 
two pieces of proper length 
for rails are cut off. The 
remainder of the piece is 
then worked in the same 
manner, making the other 
two rails. 

Another way of making 
these four pieces is to take 
four pieces of stock, each 
large enough for one rail 
and dress them straight and 
square on all surfaces and 
edges. In order to make 
them all of the same length, 
you can hold them side by 




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so 



Fig. 181 — Taboret 



132 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



side, face-edge up, in the vise as shown in Fig. 182 and draw 
two lines across the edges, making the lines exactly the dis- 
tance apart which you wish 
the length of the pieces to 
be. Plan, if you can, so 
that one line will be very 
close to one end, so that 
only the opposite end will 
require sawing. After the 
two lines are drawn upon 
the edges, remove the 
pieces from the vise and 
draw lines entirely around 
each end of each piece. 
Plane to these lines, saw- 
ing first if necessary. See 
Lesson 16. 




Fig. 1 82— Lining Ends 



A third way of 
making the rails 
is to dress a piece 
a little more than 
four times as wide 
as one rail, to allow 
waste in ripping. 
Finish the sur- 
faces, edges and 
ends; then gauge 
for width. Rip 
apart the same as 
in making the legs 




Fig. 183 — Ripping Rails 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



133 



(Figs. 184 and 185.) This is a good way to make all of the 
same length, but requires too wide stock. 

To use pieces wide enough for two rails each is probably 
the best way of all. In order to do this, follow the same 
directions for jointing as in making the sides of the bench- 
hook. If the stock is so wide that there is some to rip off the 
width, make the piece as wide as it will work, and rip the 
waste from the center, (Fig. 183). By comparing Figs. 183, 
184 and 185 you 
will see how to 
hold wide pieces 
in ripping. As the 
piece shown in 
Fig. 183 is short 
it can be held at 
the center of the 
vise and both kerfs 
made without 
moving it. The 
piece shown in 
Fig. 184 is so long 
that it must be 

held near the end of the vise jaw. This usually necessitates the 
moving of the piece to the other end of the jaw in ripping the 
piece off the other side. If the two pairs of rails vary in length 
a little it does no serious harm if they are used in pairs. That 
is, those of equal length opposite each other. 

The legs may be made in the same manner as the rails. 
As they are longer and may be sprung or bent, you will need 
to be careful in planing them. They must be square, or the 




Fig. 1 84— Ripping Legs 



134 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



joint at the side near the top end will not fit. In making the 
legs use a piece wide enough for all. Joint both ends and edges 
and rip a leg off each edge as shown in Figs. 184 and 185. 
Then re-joint the edges and rip cff the other legs, leaving what 
waste there is at the center. (Fig. 183.) 

In ripping pieces of this width they are all sawed from one 

side unless they are quite 
thick. If they are very 
thick, or if you have not 
learned to saw, the piece 
may be reversed, as in 
Figs. 91 and 92 except 
that it is held in the vise 
as in Fig. 184. In order 
to saw at a sufficient 
angle to make the revers- 
ing of value, the handle 
of the saw must be held 
low. Fig. 185 shows how 
the piece is tipped as the 
saw nears the end. 

After all the parts 
have been worked to the 
proper sizes they should be sandpapered on all surfaces which 
are to be stained or finished. Ends and surfaces which form 
parts of the joints, the ends of the legs and the inside of the 
rails, should not be sandpapered. Only a strip near the edge 
of the bottom side of the top need be sandpapered. This 
affords an excellent opportunity to demonstrate that you know 
how to sandpaper, keeping all the surfaces and edges true. 




Fig. 1 85— Ripping Legs. Finishing 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 135 

LESSON 38 

ASSEMBLING TABORET 

After all the parts are ready to put together, set the legs 
on end in the position in which they will be when nailed in 
place, and mark an X at each side where a nail is to be driven 
into the side of a leg to secure the leg to the rail. These 
marks are not to give the exact location of the nails but to 
show you at what side and end the lines for locating the nails 
are to be drawn. Set the pencil end of the gauge to one half 



"-, 




Fig. 1 86— Drilling Holes for Nails 

the thickness of a rail, and draw a light pencil gauge line on 
each outside surface, (the surface opposite the face-marks) 
of each leg at the top end. You will notice that these lines 
are not on surfaces which have face-marks. 

Lay the legs side by side with their top ends even and 
draw pencil lines to mark position of the nails. (Fig. 194) 
If you have made the rails of proper width, one line will be y 2 



136 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



inch from the end, and the other 2 inches from the end. 
After removing the clamp, draw lines from the ends of these 
lines to locate the holes on the other side. 

Place each leg in the vise and drill holes for the nails as 

*.., , m .,, m ! ,. . ^ , ~~ shown in Fig. 186, 

ggg5 MlM w l iii. n i M 'M-m] m m i nm J 'f mm ^ mtm 0j using an automatic 

Fig. 187— Automatic Drill drilL If y ou dri11 each 

hole at the point 
where the lines cross, the nails will meet each other in the 
piece, therefore drill the holes on one side a little above the 
lines, and the holes on the 
other side a little below the 
lines, as shown in the 
figure. 

The automatic drill 
(Fig. 187) is worked by 
placing the drill point in 
position, and pressing end- 
wise on the handle. Hold 
the handle at right angles 
to the surface so that the 
nails will enter the ends of 
the rails properly. 

Start the nailsthe same 
as in nailing the bench- 
hook, (Lesson 21) Hold 
the piece as shown in Fig. 
188. Hold the face-side 
of the leg flush with the 
face-side of the rail and p/^ / 88— Nailing 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



137 



the end of the leg flush with the face-edge of the rail. 
Drive the nail which is next the top, first driving it but a 
little, and then examine the piece, and, if it is all right, drive 
the other nail a little. Examine the piece again, and if cor- 
rect, drive the nails in flush. Nail the leg to the opposite end 
of the rail in the same manner, except that before driving the 
second nail, the piece 
should be examined 
the same as in looking 
for wind. (Fig. 189) 

Nail the second 
pair of legs in the same 
manner, and then nail 
the two pairs together. 
Test them carefully for 
wind, and when all are 
correct, set the nail- 
heads about ifa inch, 
using a nailset, (Fig. 
101) 

Nail blocks into 
each corner as shown 
in Fig. 190. These 
blocks whichare called 

glue blocks may be made by dressing a square piece long 
enough for two blocks. The two opposite corners should be 
square and face-marked. After the piece is squared, it should 
be ripped in two, by ripping from corner to corner, or diago- 
nally through the piece, (Fig. 191) Each half is then cut for 
two corner glue blocks. 




Fig. 1 89— Looking for Wind 



138 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



Often these blocks are used of rectangular section. Such 
blocks are but little stronger, and do not look as well. These 
blocks are not necessarily of any specified dimensions. If 
they are about the size shown in the drawing, (Fig. 181), they 
will fulfil their purpose. The angle which fits the corner 
must be exactly a right angle in order to hold the frame 
square. Drive several brads in each block. These brads 

may be of different 
lengths, the longer 
ones beingusedinthe 
thicker part of the 
block. The brads 
should be driven only 
far enough to keep the 
blocks from slipping, 
and then the blocks 
should be removed 
and glue appliedto the 
blocks and the sur- 
faces of the rails. They 
should then be se- 
curely nailed in place. 
Do not neglect to place a piece directly beneath the end into 
which the brads are being driven. You may find it necessary 
to put a clamp across the frame to hold the legs tightly against 
the ends of the rails while you are driving the nails. 

After the triangular glue blocks at the corners are fastened, 
glue and nail four blocks midway between these, to use in 
securing the top. Before nailing the blocks in place, holes 
may be bored through each block. This will permit of screws 




Fig. 1 90 — Frame Showing Glue Blocks 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



139 



being used to hold the top in place. Read what is said about 
screws and their use. 

When these blocks have been fastened, place the top on the 
bench, bottom side up, and place the frame in position. 
Measure at each corner from the side of the leg to the outer 
edge of the top and move the frame until all the measurements 
are equal, or as 
nearly so as is possi- 
ble. 

Put a screw in 
eachof the four holes 
and start them by 
driving them a little 
with the hammer. 
Turn them in tight 
with a screw driver. 

If glue is placed 
on the sides of the legs and ends of the rails before the parts 
are nailed together, they will hold better. If the glue is placed 
on the ends of the rails first and allowed to soak in and then 
more glue applied and glue placed on the surfaces of the legs 
and allowed to dry a little before placing the parts together, 
they will hold still better. 

LESSON 39 

TABORET WITH SHELF 

The taboret shown in Fig. 192 is made in the same manner 
as Fig. 181 up to the point of inserting the shelf. The shelf 
strengthens the frame, and makes the taboret stronger, there- 
fore taborets may be larger if with shelves. 




Fig. 191 —Ripping Triangular Glue Blocks 



140 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



The shelf, (Fig. 193) 
consists of three pieces, one 
rectangular piece and two 
strips. The two strips are 
made first. They may be 
cut from a long strip or by 




Fig. 1 92 — Taboret with Shelf 

ripping from the edge of a 
wide piece after the surface 
and ends have been trued. 
If they are made from a 
strip, the ends may be fin- 
ished at an angle. 

This will be found easier 





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Fig. 193— Taboret 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



141 



than making them square and will also give a better appearance. 
Before the legs are nailed in place, they should be clamped 
together, and pencil lines drawn locating positions of the nails 
for rails, and of the strips for the shelf. See Fig. 194. 

The shelf is made in the same manner as the top. It 
should be square, that is, the length and width the same. 
Before cutting it to size, measure to see if the rails and strips 




Fig. 1 94 — Legs Clamped for Lining 

are the same as the sizes given in the drawing. If they are 
not, make the shelf of a size that will hold the legs the same 
distance apart at top and bottom. 

Nail and glue the strips in place, and, lastly, the shelf. 
Holes may, if necessary, be made for these nails with the drill, 
(Fig. 187). The shelf may be set flush with the side strips, 
or a little above or a little below them. 

This style of construction gives sufficient strength for an 
ordinary center table 29 inches high. 



142 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 40 

TABORET 
Do not begin making this taboret (Fig. 195) until you have 
studied thoroughly the one described in Lesson 39; then make 
each part, following the drawing (Fig. 196). 

The top, legs and rails are made in the same manner as 

the similar parts of Fig. 180. 
If the legs are made from small, 
square stock, they may be 
clamped together as shown in 
Fig. 194, lined very near their 
ends and then all placed in the 
vise at once and the ends 
planed as if they were one piece 
as shown in Fig. 197. The 
clamp must be kept on the legs 
during the lining and planing 
so that they may be worked as 
one piece. See Lesson 16. 

The ends of the two rails 

are beveled in a manner similar 

to cutting the corners of the 

bread board. Hold them at 

an angle in the vise and plane 

at an angle similar to planing 

ends, (Fig. 198). The rails are nailed together at their ends 

and a broad brace (Fig. 199) nailed across to keep the frame 

square. Glue blocks are then fitted to the corners. 

The blocks may be clamped as in Fig. 199, or nailed. (Fig. 




Fig. 195 Taboret 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



143 



190.) If a clamp is used, 
it must not be tightened 
too much or it will pull 
the corner out of square. 
When the glue is dry, 
nails may be driven 
through the blocks into 
the rails. Be sure that 
the rails rest firmly on 
the bench, or the jar of 
nailing may break the 
joints. 

Another method of 
joining the rails is to 
clamp the four rails to- 
gether and bore two 
holes at each corner as 
shown in Fig. 200. 
Then fit dowel pins to 
the holes, and after ap- 
plying glue to both pins 
and holes, drive the pins 
into place. Before driv- 
ing the pins in, the glue 
should be dry enough 
so that it will not stick 
to the finger if lightly 
touched. 

After the glue has 
dried, the corner angles 




Fig. 196 — Tabor et 



144 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



should be cut. As these angles determine the position of the 
legs, they should be very carefully lined and worked. To 

plane them, hold them in the vise 
as shown in Fig. 201. 

While the glue is drying, 
make the shelf ready for cutting 
its corners. Intead of laying 
out the corners by the drawing, 
the rails may be clamped upon 
the shelf as in Fig. 202 and the 
corners marked. Be sure that 
both shelf and rails are right 
side up, and place a mark at 
one corner of each so that they 
may be returned to the same 




Fig. 1 97— Jointing Ends of Legs 

relative position in nailing to- 
gether. Trim the corners as 
directed for the bread board 
(Lesson 29). 

It is easier to nail the legs 
if nail holes are drilled. To 
locate the holes, place the legs 

side by side, their top ends even, and draw a short pencil line 
on each leg to locate the nail hole. Drill the holes at the 




Fig. 1 98 — Beveling Ends of Rails 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



145 




Fig. 1 99 — Clamping Glue Block 



center of the legs and then nail the parts together. As there 

are but two holes in each leg for securing the rails, drill on the 

line, not above or below 

as shown in Fig. 186. 

Examine the legs to see 

if they are square with 

the rails, and out of 

wind. Test the shelf 

also in several ways. 
The legs may be 

secured to the shelf by 

using round head blued 

screws. Such screws 

may also be used in 

securing the legs to the rails. If screws are to be used, bore 

holes in the legs large enough for the shanks of the screws. 

Bore holes in the shelf and 
rails about half the diame- 
ter of the screw thread. 
Put a little grease in these 
holes before starting the 
screws. Be very careful 
not to hit the nails as you 
bore the holes in the rails. 
If screws are to be used, 
plan for them as you nail 
the rails together and do 
not nail the glue blocks 

until after boring the holes for screws. It is best to use dowels 

at the corners if screws are to be used, and then you will not 




Fig. 200 — Boring Holes in Corner 



146 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 201 — Planing Corner 



spoil a bit in boring for the screws. In assembling the parts, 
first fasten the rails together, then the legs to the rails, next 

fasten the shelf and finish 
by putting on the top. 
See that all parts are 
straight, square and out of 
wind. 

Four glue blocks 
should be placed on the 
rails as shown in Fig. 190 
to firmly hold the top. 

This taboret furnishes 
a basis for a large number 
of modifications, all con- 
structed in this manner. 
The size may vary from the smallest taboret to one the height 
of a dining-table. The amount 
which the top projects beyond 
the rails and the width of rails are 
features which are susceptible 
of changes to suit various needs. 
The legs may not only vary in 
size, but in section, from square 
to extreme oblong, thus permit- 
ting the use of J^-inch material 
throughout. This will also per- 
mit of tapering or otherwise form- 
ing the outline of legs. The rails 
may be broad enough to hold the 
legs securely without the shelf. f *- 202 - a *^ h 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



147 



LESSON 41 

PEDESTAL 

This pedestal, (Fig. 203) is a simple, plain problem; yet 
sufficiently difficult for any grade pupil. When made in oak 
or mahogany, it taxes the ability of a good first year high 
school boy. The necessity for true surfaces, edges and cor- 
ners, is what makes it worth doing 
and if you are not good at planing, 
you had better use some other design. 

It does not matter which part is 
made first, as all may be made from 
the drawing (Fig. 204). If the 
square column is begun first, other 
parts can be made while the glue 
joints of the column are drying. 

In making the column, dress to 
a true surface what will be the inside 
cf one side piece of the column. 
Fit to this surface the two pieces 
which will be the narrow side pieces 
of the column. Be sure to leave 
these pieces wide enough to allow 
for jointing and fitting to the other 
wide piece. Locate these pieces 
and drive nails at each end at the 
inside edges so that while being clamped, they will not slip. 
Drive the nails on an angle, with their heads extending beyond 
the ends of the sides, so that they can be readily removed 
after the glue is hard. Fig. 205 shows the parts in clamps, 




Fig. 203— Pedestal 



148 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



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A-4 



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which are used also in gluing the other wide piece. To fit this 
second wide piece, true the joint side and then joint the edges 

of the narrow pieces. Plane these 
until they are of the proper width 
to give the correct size to the out- 
side of the column. Should this 
piece be either thicker or thinner 
than the drawing calls for, plan the 
width of the narrow pieces, so that 
the outside of the column will be 
the correct size with very little plan- 
ing after all sides are glued. 

Dress the outside of the column 
to the required size. Next square 
the ends. This you will find some- 
what difficult but if you work care- 
fully, watching and working to your 
lines you will succeed. 

The main part of the top is 
planed on one surface and one edge 
and then cut to a size a little larger 
than the finished top. A narrow 
facing strip is then fitted and glued 
to the under surface of the top even 
with the straight edge, (Fig. 206). 

The two end facings are next 
fitted. These are cut so that the 
grain will be parallel with the grain 
of the top. They are clamped as 
shown in Fig. 207. 






=3 



Fig. 204—Pedestai 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



149 



Nails driven at an angle at the ends and the pieces crowded 
against them, will help to make the end joints against the first 
strip tight. 




Fig. 205 — Clamping Column 

The last fac- 
ing strip is fitted 
and clamped as 
shown in Fig. 
208. 

After the parts 
have dried, the 
top is worked the 
same as a single 
thick piece. 
The piece on 

the top end of the 

Fig. 206 — Facing Strip Clamped 
column may be 

of any size which will go between the facing strips of the top and 




150 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



receive the screws, therefore do not plane it except to make it 
of equal thickness throughout. There should be three or four 
screws through the piece into the top of the column and as 
many more up through the board into the pedestal top. In 
very cheap work, nails may be used instead of screws. Deter- 
mine by careful measuring that the column is in the exact 
center of the top, before fastening it in place. If the top is of 
soft wood and the screws of proper size, the holes for the 
screws may be bored through the board, then the latter with 





Fig. 207 -End Facing Pieces Clamped 



the column attached may be put in place. When the measure- 
ments show the column in the center of the top, screws may 
be driven part way into the top by using the hammer, and 
then the screw-driver used to finish forcing them to place. 
The base is fastened to the lower end of the column in a 
similar manner. 

If the parts are of hard wood, the screws may be driven 
enough to mark the places and then the parts separated and 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 151 

holes bored for the screws. The sub-base is fastened to the 
base as well as the feet to the sub-base with screws. 

The design of the pedestal may be modified by making all 



Fig. 208 — Second Facing Strip Clamped 

parts octagonal. If the column is to be made octagonal, it 
should be made from a solid piece. Chamfering may b? used 
on the corners of the column if it is used on the edges of the 
top and bases. 

LESSON 42 

BOOK RACK 

This rack may be varied in size to suit individual require- 
ments. The board should be carefully trued on all surfaces. 
It mey be chamfered on the upper edge, in which case it 
should be enough wider to allow for the chamfering. 

The square pieces should be carefully jointed on all sides 
and all of each size should be made exactly alike and square in 




152 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

cross section. After the pieces have been jointed and cut to 

length, the ends are rounded. 

To do the 
rounding 
place a block 
in the vise and 
whittle the 
end as shown 
in Fig. 210. 
To make a 
nice end, first 
shape it like 
an octagon, 
(Fig. 211) 

Fig. 20 9— Book Rack 

and then cut off the corners, 
making it round. You will un- 
derstand how this is done by 
reading the directions for mak- 
ing the cylinder, Lesson 67. 
It is not necessary to lay out the 
octagon, but you should under- 
stand how one is made and fol- 
low the same plan as nearly as 
you can without drawing the 
lines. The rounded part should 
be the same length and shape at 
each end so that in putting the 
pieces together, they will all Fig. 2 J 0— Whittling on Block 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



153 




Fig. 211 — Octagonal End 



enter the holes the same distance. Notice that the round part 

is of the same size for about 1 inch back from the end. This 

is very important if you wish to 

make a strong joint. If the 

whittled portion is tapered the 

entire length it will have so 

small a bearing in the hole that 

the glue will not hold. You 

may draw pencil lines at each 

end to assist in making them 

alike. Your success in shap- 
ing the ends depends largely on how you use your knife. 

Use the block as in Fig. 210 if you can. Sometimes you can 

whittle as in Fig. 212. Whittling past your thumb as shown 

in Fig. 213 is all right if 
you are particular to keep 
your thumb in such a 
position that the knife 
passes over and never 
against it; otherwise you 
are likely to have a cut 
thumb. This is no doubt 
a good way to whittle and 
is the only way for whittling 
many objects. It is not 
difficult to learn and should 
be learned by every one, 
( although the block should 

be used for most of the whittling) being a method well adapted 

for removing the fine shavings, in finishing rather than for the 




Fig 2 1 2— Whittling End 



154 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig 213— Whittling End 

These are merely typical 
positions for the knife. In 
working pieces of various 
sizes and shapes, the knife 
is held in many ways. Some- 
times cutting toward the end 
and sometimes cutting in the 
opposite direction. 

After the end is formed 
to an octagon in this manner, 
it is made sixteen sided and 
finally rounded, as was the 
cylinder, Fig. 304. 

The two horizontal pieces 
of each end shouldbe clamped 



first heavy cuts. By compar- 
ing the different views you 
will notice that the knife is 
held at different angles and 
that different parts of the 
blade are used. By starting 
the shaving near the large 
end and gradually working 
toward the point, you will 
work faster and better. 

The grain of the wood 
may require special care and 
the holding of the blade at a 
very oblique angle as shown 
in Fig. 214. 




Fig. 214 — Knife Blade at an Angle 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



155 



together and the places for the spindle holes marked. Here 
you have an opportunity to exercise your judgment in spacing. 

Bore the holes and make the small spindles and then sand- 
paper each before putting the parts together. Use the paper 
on your fingers for the straight sides of the pieces and on a 
round edged block, ( Fig. 133), for the rounded ends. 

The ends may be made separate from the base and not 
glued to it, so that in packing the ends will lie flat upon the base. 

It is possible to hinge the ends the same as if they were solid 
boards, but the setting of the hinges is too difficult a task for 
most pupils at this time. Surface hinges should not be used for 
such a piece, and their use marks the work of a mere novice. 

LESSON 43 

REED FOOTSTOOL 

The first thing in making this footstool (Fig. 215) is to set 
the pieces for the 
legs on end and 
select what are to 
be the outside sur- 
faces. As the in- 
side corners are the 
ones which deter- 
mine the square- 
ness of the frame, 
it is necessary to 
make these corners 
square and there- 
fore the face-marks 
will be on the inside 
corners. As these Fig. 21 5— Reed Footstool 




156 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




i— 



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M 



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will be less seen than the others, you will select the poorer 
faces for the face-sides, instead of the better faces as in work- 
ing the first piece 



(Lesson 4). That 
you may be sure to 
locate these marks in 
the proper place, 
stand the legs on end 
and mark an x on 
each side that is to 
be a face. After 
dressingthe surfaces, 
use the face-marks 
as shown in Figs. 37 
and 43. 

After all four sides 
ofeachleghavebeen 
jointed, set them on 
end again and mark 
the places for the 
holes for the rungs 
(Fig. 217). From 
the drawing (Fig. 
216) lay out one leg 
and then by super- 
position, lay out the 
others from this one. 
Be sure to make no 
mistake. The chief difficulty is to locate the lower holes cor- 
rectly as they are not alike on the two sides. At the same time 



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Fig. 21 6 — Reed Footstool 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



157 




Fig. 21 7 — Marking Position of Rungs 



you mark the positions for the holes, you should mark points at 

which to draw knife lines for cutting off the ends and pencil 

lines for the chamfers This 

is shown in Fig. 218. After 

longitudinal positions for the 

holes have been located, set 

the gauge and draw short lines 

across the knife lines to locate 

the lateral positions. By refer- 
ring to the drawing you will 

note that the gauge is to be set 

at the same space for all the 

holes and is to be held with the 

head against the face-sides. 

The boring of the holes is a matter of much importance, 

for if they are not at right angles to the surface, the footstool 

will not be square. One of the upper holes should be bored 

to a depth of about lj{ 
inches and the other one 
bored until it meets this 
one. A better plan is 
to bore but one hole at 
the top of each leg until 
after the legs are glued 
in pairs. Then the other 
hole can be bored with- 
out so much danger of 
splitting the end. See 
Fig. 229. All the lower 
Fig. 2 J 8— Marking by Superposition holes should be about 




158 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




\y 2 inches deep. Chamfer the top ends, following the direct- 
ions for chamfering, given in Lesson 18. As these chamfers 

are short you will 
be very careful to 
make them 
square, smooth 
and of equal size. 
Be particular to 
make them alike, 
and with sharp, 
clean cut edges, 
for if the cham- 
fers are not well 
made, the ap- 
pearance of, the 
piecewillbepoor. 
Select the four 
square pieces for the lower rungs; plane them to size and square; 
cut them to length and finish the ends as directed in Lesson 42. 

Thefourremain- 
ing pieces are for the 
upper rungs. These 
should first be 
rounded at adjoin- 
ing corners, follow- 
ing the directions 
for making the cyl- 
inder. 

After they are 

rounded, whittle the 

Fig. 220 — Testing with Try square 



Fig. 219 — Testing with Try square 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



159 



ends the same as for the lower rungs. Dowel rod may be 
used for these pieces, but in using it you lose the opportunity 
of learning to do the rounding. 




Fig. 22 1 — Testing with Try square 

After the parts have ail been shaped and smoothed, select 
the rungs for the two 
opposite sides and put 
them together; if they 
are right, separate them 
and apply glue. Allow 
the glue to become 
nearly glazed and then 
force the pieces to- 
gether by clamping. Be 
very careful to test your 
work at each stage by 
looking for wind (Fig. 
189). Apply the try- Fig. 222— Testing with Framing Square 




160 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




square as in Figs. 219, 220 and 221. The framing square may 

be applied as in Fig. 222. You may be able to press the parts 

together without using 
any clamps but do not 
try to drive them to- 
gether. By referring 
to Fig. 229 you will 
learn how a clamp may 
be used. 

If the rungs re- 
quire turning to make 
them square as tested 
in Fig. 221 a hand 
screw may be used, 
Fig. 223. If one end 
enter too easily it may 

be held back by placing a hand-screw as shown in Fig. 224. 
After each pair of legs has been put together and the glue 

allowed to dry, glue the pairs together in a similar manner, 

testing them thoroughly. 

They may be tested for 

squareness by measuring 

from corner to corner. 

Fig. 225. 

The next work is the 

finishing. Read the 

lesson on finishing and 

use such materials as you 

think best for this piece. 

There are many ways Big. 224—Handscrew at End of Rung 



Fig. 223— Turning Rung 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



161 




Fig. 225 — Testing by Measuring 



of weaving the reed or other material used for the top of the 
footstool. The most simple is to wind the reed around one 
way and weave in 
the cross strands. 
The weaving may 
be done by passing 
the strand first 
under and then 
over, making a sim- 
ple regular pattern. 
By varying the num- 
ber of strands passed over or under different patterns are made. 
To plan the weaving use small frame and weave string instead 

of the reeds. 
This will often 
savemuchtime. 
Another 
method of weav- 
ingandthebest, 
if you will be 
careful to follow 
the directions, 
is to wind the 
reed around in 
three ways be- 
fore doing any 
weaving. This 
is done in the 
manner shown 

Fig. 226— Weaving in Fl S- 226< 




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162 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



^ 



Fig. 227— Needle 



This shows a simple plain weave. By winding two or more 
strands close together or by leaving more than one space the 
pattern can be varied. 

After the three windings the top is finished by stitching in the 

Crzr ■ — — last strands. For this a 

li^_ . ' needle is required, such 

as is shown in Fig. 227. 
It may be made from a 
piece of brass or iron and 
should be but little if any 
wider than the reeds. Other materials may be used for the tops 
of such footstools, but reeds are probably most desirable for 
school use. 

LESSON 44 

TABORET. 

This taboret( Fig. 228) 
may be made of any ordi- 
nary size or proportion. 
Make a drawing giving the 
size of each part and the 
spacing. 

If the top were covered 
with leather and the parts 
properly proportioned it 
would be a footstool. 

In the taboret shown, 
the legs are 1^ inches 
square and 14 inches high, 
the rungs 7/% inch square 
and the top 12 inches 
Fig. 228- Taboret square. From these di- 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



163 




mensions you can calculate the dimensions of the piece you 

wish to make. 

Dress all the pieces straight and square. Plan to have the 

face-marks at the inside 

corners of the legs and 

at the upper and inside 

edges of the rungs or 

rails. In marking the 

places for boring and 

whittling the ends follow 

the directions given for 

making the book rack, 

(Lesson 42) and foot- 
stool (Lesson 43). 

If but one hole is 

bored in the top of each 

leg before the sides are 

clamped there will be less danger of splitting the top ends. As 

the lower holes at the adjoining sides do not meet, they may 

both be bored be- 
fore clamping. It is 
usually necessary to 
force the parts to- 
gether with clamps. 
Almost any light 
clamp or handscrew 
will answer, for the 
parts should fit so 

nicely that slight pressure is required. Should the ends not 

draw up alike a stick may be placed between them, Fig. 229. 

Read the directions for testing Fig. 215 before attempting to 



Fig. 229 — Clamping Tabor et 




Fig. 230—Taboret Top 



164 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



put this taboret together. The top is fastened to the frame by bor- 

ingholes down through the rails and inserting screws frombeneath. 

A simple modification of this taboret 
is shown in Fig. 230. The general 
plan may be the same as Fig. 228. In 
order to allow for the extension of the 
legs above the top, they are dressed off 
at the inside corner and the top fitted 
by trimming the corners similar to mak- 
ing an octagon, or cutting the corners 
of the bread board, (Fig. 143). 

When this construction is used the 
frame should first be made and then the 
top. Before beginning work, carefully 
draft out the top and legs so that you 
will be sure to have the parts well pro- 

Fig. 231 -Corner of Leg portioned. Fig. 23 1 is a picture of the 
leg showing the flattened corner. 

This style of leg may be used on other than rectangular tops. 



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LESSON 45 

BOOK RACK 

This book or magazine rack, Fig. 232, may be any size 
from a rack of one shelf to a rack of four or five shelves, 3 feet 
long. It is best not to plan a rack requiring shelves more than 
3 feet long, because the weight of the books will cause the 
shelves to spring or sag. Shelves 2 feet to 2^ feet long are 
most desirable and satisfactory. 

The sizes of the parts should vary to correspond with size 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



165 



of rack. Posts 1 % inches square are heavy enough for any 
rack and can be used on the smaller sizes. Posts }& inch 
square are suitable for racks of two shelves not over 2 feet 
long, but if such light posts are used, all the other parts must 
be correspondingly light. The shelves for such a light rack 
should not be over J4 mcn thick. Such light parts require 
very careful workman- 
ship. If you are not 
sure that you can do 
very close work you 
ought not to attempt 
to make a light rack. 
Before making your 
drawing look over 
the similar designs 
Figs. 209, 215, 228. 
The ends and back 
may be ornamented 
by either horizontal or 
vertical pieces as 
shown in these de- 
signs. Do not make 
the parts too fine or 
use too many pieces. 

All directions for making the rungs and laying out the parts 
are found in the directions for making Figs. 209, 215, 228. 
Follow these instructions carefully. 

The shelves are made in the same manner as the base of 
the bench-hook, Fig. 74. In this design the shelves have 
much to do in holding the rack rigid and square, and should 




Book Rack 



166 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

therefore be carefully straightened and also be out of wind. 
Make the ends first, then glue the back pieces in place, and 
lastly fasten the shelves securely to the ends. The best way 
to secure the shelves is to bore holes up through the rails and 
insert screws. 

LESSON 46 

MAGAZINE RACK 

The magazine rack shown in Fig. 233 is a very nice study- 
in planing and nailing. The drawing (Fig. 234), gives the 
sizes of each part and if you work to these dimensions you will 
have little difficulty in completing the project. 

The end pieces should be carefully trued on all sides, edges 
and ends, for if they are in wind, or the edges are not square, 

the joints 
will not be 
good. Be 
particular to 
have your 
plane sharp 
while 
smoothing 

Fig. 233 -Magazine Rack the end 

grain, for 
one end should be carefully smoothed to form a joint, and the 
other end must be smooth, or it will not finish nicely. 

The bottom should be straight on the edges and out of 
wind but need not be exactly straight on the sides. It should 
be of the same thickness throughout, but may be a little curved 
from end to end, for in putting together, the back will straighten 





WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



167 



it. The back may also be curved a little, for the bottom will 
straighten it. 

If the strips on the front are a little curved or sprung side- 
wise, the convex side should be turned toward the inside or back. 

Using thin pieces which are not perfectly straight may 
appear improper, but if you watch such pieces as you work 
them, you will discover that they are so easily sprung or 
straightened that it is useless to attempt to make them straight. 



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Fig. 234 — Magazine Rack 






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If thin stock has been run through a good surface planer 
and is not in wind, usually all that is required is to go , over 
each surface systematically with the smooth plane, joint the 
edges carefully and then force the piece straight sidewise in 
putting it in place. 

The working of such thin lumber requires a much larger 
knowledge of planing and jointing than the working of thicker 
pieces. You should therefore thoroughly master the instruc- 



168 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

tions in regard to the first study piece and make some pieces 
of thick stock before attempting any projects using thin material. 

You should study Lessons 15, 20, 21, 24, 25 and 29, be- 
fore attempting to make this rack, and you will receive far 
more benefit from this lesson if you make all of the objects in 
the lessons mentioned. 

In assembling this piece, first nail the back to the ends 
and then the bottom and last the slats. With some kinds of 
finish all parts can be finished before nailing together. 

Fancy headed nails may be used over the brads, or blued 
round head screws may be used in front and back. 

LESSON 47 

BOOK RACK 

The size of a book rack is properly determined by the size 
and number of books it is to hold. The shelf should be 




Fig. 235- Book Rack 

smooth and straight and a little wider than the widest book. 
Carving or other roughness beneath books is objectionable. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



169 



Strips with spaces between or adjustable shelves made up of 
sliding strips should never be tolerated. The end supports 
should not be less than half the height of the book and usually 
three-quarters is more satisfactory. Sometimes it is desirable 
to make the end supports higher than the book. The back 
support when in combination with a level shelf need be only 
high enough to hinder the books being pushed beyond the 
edges of the shelf. In nearly all cases the back is not simply 
to hold the books, but to assist in holding the ends and other 
parts. When this is the purpose, 
other requirements must determine 
the size, strength and nature of the 
back; for anything which is sufficient 
to give strength to the case will, if 
properly placed, retain the books. 
The length of the shelf is determined 
by the number of books to be held 
until a limit is reached and then the 
shelves are increased in number 
rather than in length. 

Do not make the shelves too light. Books are heavy and 
will spring a shelf unless it is strong. For small books a shelf 
may be made 2 feet long of ^-inch stock. If the books are 
8vo. the shelf should be % inch thick. 

By examining Fig. 135 and considering the above sugges- 
tions, you ought to be able to plan a rack for your own use. 
Do all the planning before you begin work, so that while 
making the piece you will have nothing to think about besides 
the study in construction. Be particular to review all directions 
for planing. (Lessons 4 to 11), sawing, (Lesson 14), cham- 




Fig. 236— End of Book Rack 



170 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



fering, (Lesson 17), whittling, (Lesson 42) and sandpapering, 
(Lesson 25). 

Do not attempt to make your Book-Rack until you have 
made the first study piece and done some chamfering and 
boring on a simpler project. 

The end view, Fig. 236, shows the rails projecting through 
the end piece. Round pins are used to hold the rails in place. 
These pins may be flattened on one side. In this case the 
holes are bored so that a part of each hole is covered by the 
end piece. To insure the holes being in the center of the rods 
or rails they should be bored before the ends are rounded. 



LESSON 48 

PLATE RACK 

This rack (Fig. 237), is made in substantially the same 
manner as Fig. 235. 

The blocks (Fig. 238) for fastening to the wall should be 




Fig. 237— Plate Rack 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



171 



securely glued and screwed to the end and cross-rod and to the 
shelf so that there will be no possibility of their becoming 




Fig. 238— Plate Rack 



16 



loosened. The holes in these blocks should be either 
inches, 32 inches or 48 inches from center to center. 

All the cross-rods may extend entirely 

through the ends as in Fig. 235, or some or 

all may be in blind holes as the rails of the 

book rack, (Fig. 232). 

Fig. 239 is an end view of 

J Fig. 237. This shows a 

combination of rods with 
pins and rods with nails. 
Fig. 240 is a section 
through the end and rod 
showing the location of the 
nail. In Fig. 239 a nail 
is shown partly driven. 
These nails should be very carefully driven 
so that they do not run out on the side of the 
Fig. 2 3 9— View of End end piece. A clamp should be used to hold 





Fig. 240— Rods 
Nailed. Sectional View 



172 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



the pieces in place while the nails are being driven. Pins may 
be used instead of the nails, or the parts may be glued. 

Unless the rods are of hard wood the shelves should be 
held by screws, either flat head or round head. 

This plan of plate rack may be altered in many ways with- 
out materially increasing the difficulties of construction. The 
size and spacing of the rods should be determined to suit indi- 
vidual requirements. Hooks may be placed beneath the shelves 
as required. 

LESSON 49 

BOOK RACK 

This book rack, Fig. 241, is of a type which may be modi- 
fied to suit a great variety of needs. Made of a good cabinet 

wood it is a pleasing de- 
sign as well as useful and 
a good lesson in wood- 
work. It is not a very 
difficult problem, and 
may be made by pupils 
who have learnedto plane, 
bore, saw and drive nails. 
The pieces for the 
troughs should be dressed 
on all four sides and then 
clamped together and 
lines drawn at each end 
at which to cut them off 
as in Fig. 194. In squar- 
ing these ends have good 
Fig. 241— Book Rack full lines entirely around 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



173 



* 



and then work exactly to the lines. Remember that it is much 

easier to draw the lines correctly, and saw close to them leaving 

only enough for smoothing with the plane, than it is to draw the 

lines carelessly, and then 

attempt to plane the ends 

square. Before doing any 

work on this rack, read all 

that is said about truing 

surfaces, jointing edges 

and squaring ends, in 

Lessons 1 to 20. 

The posts should be 
made in the same manner 
as the legs for the taborets. 
Fig. 180 or Fig. 195. 
After the four legs have 
been dressed straight and 
square, calculate the 
amount of slant, and make 
the block to be used be- 
tween the head of the try- 
square blade and the leg in 
lining around the ends, 
and in determining the 
angle at which the holes 
are to be bored. 

On one leg in the draw- 
ing (Fig. 242) is shown a 

sketch of a trysquare and a tapered piece. From the 
dimensions you learn that the ends are 7 inches wide at the 




Fig. 242— Book Rack 



174 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



top and 10 inches wide at the bottom. The slant height is 24 
inches. This gives a slant of 3 inches in 24 inches of height, 
or 1 inch in width to each 8 inches of height. The slant is 

equal on each side, therefore 




Fig. 243 — Lining Across an End 
at an Angle 



on one side the slant is y 2 inch 
to each 8 inches in height. 

A piece 8 inches in slant 
length and y 2 inch wider at 
one end than at the other will 
exactly offset the slant of the 
legs. Such a piece placed be- 
tween the head of the trysquaie 
and the leg will give all the 
angles for working the legs. 
Fig. 243 shows how the piece 

is placed for lining across the ends, Fig. 244 shows how the 

piece is used in boring the holes. 
As a matter of convenience 

the piece is slotted at each end 

so it will slip over the trysquare 

blade. Whether the wide or nar- 
row end is over the blade is 

determined by the line to be 

drawn. Always place the head 

of the trysquare or tapered piece 

against a face, the same as in 

ordinary work. 

In laying out such work 

measure the lengths or spacing on the face-edge as the lines are 

straight across on the edge. Then from the ends of these lines 




Fig. 244 — Boring a Hole at an A ngle 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 175 

draw the slanting lines on the sides. In squaring the end for 
putting together it maybe tested with the try-square and tapered 
block and also by measuring from the extreme outside corners. 
If it is not square it may be sprung to place and a brace nailed 
or clamped to it until the glue has dried. Another way is to 
clamp it to a board. 

The design of the end may be changed considerably with- 
out requiring any additional directions. The upper cross-piece 
or rung answers the purpose of a handle. Square or round 
rods may be used lengthwise beneath the shelves to assist in 
keeping them in place. The strip at the front of the lower 
rack may be omitted. This permits making the end piece 
tapered the entire length at the front edge. 

The pieces for the lower trough-ends may first be made in 
one piece similar to Fig. 163. 

Some may prefer a pattern to use in laying out the pieces. 
Others may prefer to make one piece and mark the other from 
it. Whatever method is used draw knife lines to work to, and 
saw so near the lines that but little planing will be required. 

Fasten the ends into the troughs first, and then fasten the 
legs to the trough ends. Glue and nails, dowels or screws 
may be used for holding the parts together. 

This rack may be modified by changing the sizes of the 
parts, the angle of the shelves, or the number of shelves. The 
ends may be solid pieces instead of square or rectangular legs. 



176 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 50 

PLANT STAND 

This follows the same plan of work as the footstool ( Fig. 
215), and is practically the same excepting the extension of the 
legs above the top rail, the longer legs below, and the cross- 
rails which form the rest for the plant. 

Read the directions for making 
round ends, Lesson 42 and for 
making the footstool (Fig. 215.) 
As the legs are longer you 
should be more particular to make 
every part square and bore the 
holes correctly. 

The hexagons or other orna- 
mental pieces may be held in 
place by brads. To lay off the 
hexagon, set the compasses to one- 
half the space between the rods 
and strike a circle (Fig. 247). 
Notice that the compasses are 
held near the top. Draw the 
diameter A-B (Fig. 248) either 
with or across the grain. With 
the compasses set at the same 
space as in striking the circle place 
one leg at the point A and mark the small arcs C and E, change 
the compasses to the point B and strike the arcs D and F. 
This should give the points or angles of the hexagon. Place 
the compasses on C and draw the other arc at D, and on Eand 




Fig. 245— Plant Stand 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



177 



Q 



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r- 



^ 



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o in 



u 



Fig. 246 



jk.Jk.LJ 



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Kl 



draw the other arc at F. If these last arcs cross the circle at 
exactly the same points as the first ones you can consider the 
points correctly 
located. Con- 
nect these points 
completing the 
hexagon. Draw 
knife lines to work 
to and saw and 
plane the hexa- 
gon to shape. 

Various other 
geometrical forms 
may be used in 
this place. 

First glue to- 
gether the sides 
which receive the 
ends of the cen- 
ter cross-rails and 
then glue the two 
pairs of legs to- 
gether. 

The legs may 
be left square and 
straight, or may 
be tapered. In 
articles of this sort which sustain considerable weight, the 
legs may be tapered on only the inside or face-sides, or on all 
sides. To work these tapers draw pencil lines across the face- 



-Plant Stand 



178 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



surfaces (Fig. 249 A) for the end of the taper, and gauge lines 
on the lower ends, draw pencil lines lengthwise with a straight- 
edge connecting these points. If 
you are careful in planing these 
long lines may be omitted. Begin 
planing at a distance from the 

D 





Fig. 24 7— Drawing Circle 



Fig. 248 — Laying out Hexagon 



pencil line which crosses the surface and gradually work back 
to it as you approach the gauge line on the end. In planing 

finish one surface 
before beginning 
another. After the 
two opposite sur- 
faces have been 
tapered draw lines 
as in Fig. 249 B 
and taper the other 
two surfaces. 

This design 




Fig. 24 9— Leg Lined for Tapering 



offers an excellent 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



179 



opportunity for the study of spacing and the use of simple 
geometric forms as part of the design. 



LESSON 51 

UMBRELLA RACK 

This umbrella rack affords an opportunity for the use of 
exceptional ability in spacing. The size of the parts, distances 
between the horizontal pieces, and the variation in the number 
and length of parts in the different sec- 
tions all afford an opportunity for good 
judgment as well as the use of the 
designer's art. 

Do not use too many pieces. Fully 
determine each part of the design before 





Fig. 250— Umbrella Rack Fig. 25 1 — Pan for Umbrella Rack 

beginning work. In this rack the posts are l}i inches square, 



25 inches high and 8^. 
square, 5% inches and 4% 



m inches apart. The crossrails are % inch 
inches apart at the top and 4% 



180 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



inches and Zy A inches apart at the bottom. The spindles are ^ 
inch square. Make a complete drawing before beginning work. 

Read the directions for making the book rack, Fig. 209; the 
footstool, Fig. 215; and the plant stand, Fig. 245. 

The number of pieces in each side of this stand make 
necessary the careful fitting of all, or the rack will not be square 
when finished. You may find it necessary, in gluing, to clamp 
each side to a thick board in order to keep it square, and out 
of wind. Test your work in every way that you can and be 
sure that the glue on the sides is thoroughly dry before 
attempting to glue the two sides together. 

The pan may be of copper or of cast iron as shown in Fig. 251. 



LESSON 52 

UMBRELLA RACK 




Fig. 252— Umbrella Rack 



This is similar in 
construction to Fig. 250. 
There is an opportunity 
for a variety of spacing. 
This should be all 
planned and sketched 
before beginning work, 
for it may necessitate 
a change in the size of 
some part. As this rack 
is for several umbrellas, 
the material may all be 
larger than for Fig. 250. 
The height may be the 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 181 

same. Read the directions for making, Figs. 245 and 250, 
before beginning the work. 

From the illustration you can learn the method of dividing 
the top into rectangular spaces. The long central rail is placed 
either above or below the cross-rails so that no notching of one 
to the other is necessary. 

Ordinarily, no fastening of these pieces is necessary, but if the 
cross-pieces appear to spring too much, they may be secured by 
using a screw from the under side at each place where parts cross. 

There may be one pan extending the entire length of the 
rack, or there may be a pan for each division of the top. By 
using one short cross-rail at the bottom, as shown in Fig. 252, 
pans can be used for each four divisions. These may be 
planned so that the same pattern may be used as for Fig. 250. 

The sizes of stock used in Fig. 252 are, posts, 1^ inch 
square; rails, % inch square; spindles, y 2 inch square; hori- 
zontal cross -rails for making the divisions, S/q inch square. 

LESSON 53 

THREAD SCREEN 

The center panel of this screen is 14 inches high and 1% 
inches wide. The side sections are 12 inches high and 6% 
inches wide. The stock is ^ inch square for the uprights, y 2 
inch square for the rails. The pins on which the spools turn 
are S A & inch in diameter and about 2 inches long, including the 
part in the hole. 

Lay out and work the pieces the same as for Figs. 209 and 
215. Carefully read the directions for making these pieces 
before beginning to make the thread screen. 



182 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



Plan the proportions and dimensions to suit your require- 
ments. Make a complete, drawing showing the size and loca- 
tion of each part 
including the 
pins. 

The parts are 
small and the 
holes not deep, 
therefore all the 
work must be 
well done orthe 
screen will not 
stand well when 
completed. 
Bore the holes 
forthe pins, but 
do not put them 
Fig. 253— Thread Screen in before gluin g 




the sides and rails 
together. 

To assist in 
squaring and also 
to keep the sides 
from coming too 
near together, 
pieces may be 
placed tempora- 
rily between the 
sides as shown in 
Fig. 254. 




Fig. 254 — Clamping Thread Screen 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



183 



The hinges maybe of leather the same as the screen (Fig. 259), 
or they may be made of cord as shown in detail in Fig. 255. 

The cord is laced through one hole, then between the 
posts and through the second hole. 
This makes it double in the second 
hole. Pins are glued and forced 
into the holes to keep the cord from 
moving. No other fastening is 
required. 

Hinges hold such light pieces 
more rigid than the cord or leather 
fastenings. Fancy surface hinges may be used if you do not 
wish to make the screen so it will fold either way. 




Fig. 255 — Cord Hinge 



LESSON 54 

SCREEN 

This screen (Fig. 256) is a fine lesson in jointing, squar- 
ing, boring and designing, but it should not be undertaken 
until you have made some of the more simple objects of this 
class. 

If you have had this experience, you require no additional 
directions except that as the material is light and long you will 
need to be very careful to bore all holes in the posts as deep 
as they can be bored without breaking through. You must 
keep ever in mind that the longer the parts the more any 
variation in the boring or whittling will show, and therefore be 
very careful to bore all holes exactly straight, and whittle all 
ends exactly alike. 

Study all the designs of this class and make a drawing 



184 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



showing the sizes of all the parts and the spacing. Instead 
of each panel being of a different height, the center panel may 
be the highest and the side panels of equal height. The 




Fig. 256— Screen 



drawing (Fig. 257) gives the dimensions of Fig. 256. 

There are many ways of securing the tapestry, but for a 

light screen, the rods, as shown in Fig. 258, are probably 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



185 



best. These are simply light curtain-rods. The leather hinge 
shown in detail in Fig. 259 is a very good hinge for a screen 






18 



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El 



Fig. 2 57— Screen 




Fig. 258 — Rods and Tapestry 




Fig. 259 — Leather Hinge 



of this size and weight, although other styles of hinges may 
be used. 



186 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 55 

CHAIR 

Do not attempt to make this chair until you have made 
some of the more simple projects in this class. If the work is 
well done, the chair will be serviceable, but if it is poorly made 
it will not be sufficiently strong. Carefully study the directions 

for making the book-rack (Fig. 

t|j~| 209), the foot-stool (Fig. 215), 
and the screen (Fig. 256). 





Fig. 260— Chair 



Fig. 261 — Chair Sides 



More pieces may be used, or those shown may be differ- 
ently placed. The sizes given in the drawing (Fig. 262) 
are as shown in Fig. 260. 

The parts could be much heavier, but it will not be safe 
to make them lighter. By comparing the sizes given in the 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



187 



drawing with the sizes of chairs in your home you may be able 
to plan a chair better suited to your needs. Make a complete 




188 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

drawing before beginning work. In putting the parts together 
assemble the sides first. To make both sides alike they may 
be clamped as shown in Fig. 261. After the two sides are 
finished insert the rungs and clamp them together. In all the 
assembling examine the pieces for wind. Test them with the 
try-square at each angle as shown in Lesson 43. Also use the 
framing square wherever the parts are large enough. 

The back and seat are woven the same as the foot-stool 
seat (Lesson 43). Other styles of seating may be used. As 
there is considerable strain on the seat the upper inner edges 
of the rungs should be slightly rounded to avoid breaking the 
reeds. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



189 




Fig. 263— Blotter Pad 



LESSON 56 

BLOTTER PAD 

After you have learned to plane straight surfaces of ordi- 
nary length, you can study the planing of curves on short or 
thin pieces. You will find it more difficult to plane the pieces 
for the blotter pad than to 
plane such pieces as the 
study piece, the bench 
hook or bread board. 

The drawing (Fig. 264) 
gives the sizes. Dress both 
pieces in the ordinary way 
making them both rectan- 
gular. It is much easier 
to do this than to plane the tapers and curve from a rough side. 
To taper the top, first cut the piece to the finished length. 
Draw pencil lines for the end of 
the taper near the center. Draw 
gauge lines for the thickness at 
theends. (See Fig. 249.) Plane 
to these lines. Hold the piece 
against the stop in planing. Use 
a block between the stop and the 
piece to avoid bruising the end. 
Draw a line on each edge for 
the curve of the thick or body piece 
of the pad. These lines may be 
drawn free-hand or with the aid of a templet or pattern. They 
should be alike on each edge. As this curve cannot be planed 




Fig. 264— Blotter Pad 



190 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



against the stop, you can place it in the vise as shown in Fig. 
265. Part of the time the plane may be held at an angle of 
about 45 degrees and moved across from edge to edge, and 
part of the time the plane may be held parallel with the edges 
and moved along the curve. Test the surface from edge to edge 
with the try-square as in Fig. 25. 

The parts are held together with a brass knob and screw, 
which may be secured from dealers in Manual Training Supplies. 
The sizes may be changed so that larger blotters can be used. 

A very nice finish 
may be given the top 
and sides of this pad 
by applying several 
coats of white shellac 
and rubbing the sur- 
faces down smooth 
after each coat. 
Usually for such por- 
ous woods the grain 
is filled before using 
the shellac, but for 
so small a surface the entire finish may be made with white 
shellac. At first rub the finish with sandpaper, rubbing parallel 
with the grain and be careful to not rub too much at the edges. 
After you have applied sufficient shellac to cover the surface 
and fill the pores of the wood nearly even with the other parts, 
grind it all down to a thin even coating by using pumice stone 
and oil under a pad or wad of cloth or cotton waste. The 
last rubbing must be done with rotten stone or very fine 
pumice stone. 




Fig. 265 — Planing Curve 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



191 



LESSON 57 

SCOURING BOX 

This box (Fig. 266), may be made of pine or of hard 
wood, and of a size to suit individual requirements. Fig. 
268 gives the ordinary dimensions. The chief difficulty is 





Fig. 266— Scouring Box 



Fig. 267 — Sides Ready for Ripping 



the making of true surfaces and edges on material of this size 
and thickness. 

Be careful to work each surface correctly as you proceed, 
following the same order as in working the first study piece, or 
the parts of the bench-hook. 



192 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



The back is made in one piece, the ends planed as in 
Lesson 16 and the corners cut off as directed in Lesson 29. 
To make the work easier, the sides are worked as one piece 



III I Ill 


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A 











Fig. 268— Scouring Box 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



193 



until all surfaces are true, the ends trimmed and the edges 
chamfered as shown in Fig. 267. The piece is then ripped 
in two, as in Figs. 184 and 185, and the other edges jointed. 
The bottom and face-piece are then made. One piece is 
worked to a size wide enough or long enough for both face 
and bottom. After all sides and ends are finished the piece 
for the face is cut off and nailed in place. 




Fig. 269— Measuring Width of Bottom 



The bottom is then fitted by marking the width as shown 
in Fig. 269 and sawing and planing to the marks. The length 
is marked as shown in Fig. 270. A line is drawn entirely around 
the piece and the end sawed and planed. It is then nailed in 
place. But little finish should be used on a box of this kind. 

The shape of the back may be changed or it may be cham- 
fered across the top and down the edges to the side pieces. 
Thinner stock may be used, but as the box is likely to be wet 



194 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



when in use the thin lumber will not likely be satisfactory. To 
learn the reason for this, select two pieces of board of the same 
kind and quality of lumber, both of different thickness, and 
wet them on one side only. Lay them side by side to dry 
and watch the changes in their shape. Notice which one 
changes the most and see if you can find a reason for the 

difference. You 
may also experi- 
ment with differ- 
ent kinds of wood. 
Be particular to 
select specimens 
having the annual 
rings in similar 
position. You may 
notice a difference 
in the warping of 
two boards of the 
same kind of wood 
if one is cut at right 
angles to the rings 
and the other 
nearly parallel with 
them. 
If at one time you leave a wide board lying flat on the 
bench top or floor and next time standing on end, or leaning 
against the bench, you will learn how boards may be warped 
or kept from warping. 

The piece across the front may extend beyond the sides and 
have its ends rounded the same as the sides of the box, Fig. 287 . 




Fig. 270 — Measuring Length of Bottom 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



195 



LESSON 58 

WHISK BROOM HOLDER 

The ease with which you make this will depend on how 
you work the parts. By observing the sizes given in Fig. 272 
you will see that it may be 
made from one piece 20 
inches long, 5 inches wide 
and 3/ s inch thick. 

Plane this as you did 
the study piece, Lesson 4, 
except that by going over 
each surface systemati- 
cally the machine marks 
will be removed and the 
piece remain the same 
thickness throughout. The 
piece is so thin it can be 
bent or sprung, so do not 
attempt to make the sur- 
faces perfectly straight. 
There should be no short 
irregularities in it, nor 
should it be in wind, and 
the edges must be square 
and straight. After truing 

the sides and edges, lay out the piece as shown in Fig. 273. 
One end should be lined and squared (Lesson 16). First cut 
off the corners and then the piece for the back and trim the 
edges, following directions for similar work (Lesson 29), and 




Fig. 271 — Whisk Broom Holder 



196 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



square the lower end. Follow directions for nailing, Lesson 21, 
using 1-inch wire brads. The hole for suspending may be large 
enough to go over the head of a nail or screw, or only large 
enough for the shank so the broom holder will be held in place. 

If this model is made of pine, 
basswood, whitewood, or some sim- 
ilar soft wood it is a very easy prob- 
lem for one who 



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has learned to 
plane. To make 
the problem more 
difficult the shape 
of the back may 
be changed, also 
that of the front 
or of the sides. 
The corners may 
be chamfered or 
the front made 
wider and the 
edges extended 
past the sides and 
rounded the same 
as the ends of the 
box sides (Fig. 
287). 
Another modification and one which should be used by the 
more advanced pupils is to make the entire piece of some 
fine cabinet wood and polish it before fastening the front in 
place. This necessitates the front extending beyond the sides 



Fig. 272— Whisk Broom Holder 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



197 



and the use of fancy headed nails or escutcheon pins instead 
of brads in securing the front. Brads may be used to nail the 
back to the sides. In place of the brads or escutcheon pins, 
screws may be used. In using screws the parts should all be 
fastened together to see if all are correct, and then taken apart 
and the shellac or other finish applied. 

Round head blued screws should be used in front and flat 
head screws at the back. 

Escutcheon pins are a special form of nails with solid 
hemispherical heads. They are made of both brass and ircn 




Fig. 273— Piece Laid Out 



and in many sizes. If you use them in hard wood, holes 
should be drilled with the automatic drill (Fig. 187). Before 
polishing the holder put all the parts together, driving the nails 
through the front only enough to make certain that you will 
have no trouble in locating it properly, then remove the nails 
and apply the finish. The directions for polishing are found 
in Lesson 56. 

In driving the nails after the surface has been polished be 
careful not to drive them too far or the finish will be cracked 
about the heads. 



198 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 59 

MATCH STRIKE 

While this is a "useful article" it is a waste of time to 
make it solely for use. Time is too precious to spend for such 
a purpose. If you have made the first study piece, the bench- 
hook, and the chamfered bread board, and yet feel that you 




,1 £ 



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00 




Fig. 274— Match Strike 



Fir 275— Match Strike 



do not understand planing and chamfering well enough to 
make, properly, one of the waste paper baskets, make this 
piece as a study of planing, but do not allow the thought of 
simply ''making something" to influence you. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



199 



This lesson being a review of Lessons 13, 14, 18, 25 and 
29, you should study these thoroughly as you proceed. Follow 
the drawing (Fig. 275) closely, or make a drawing for a 
different size and follow that. Be sure to leave all edges and 
corners straight and square, as in the drawing. 

Smooth the surface for a first class finish and thus learn to 
do nice finishing. Do not mutilate it by line carving, 
stamping, or other ''decoration." 



LESSON 60 

MATCH SAFE 

To make the back of this 
match safe (Fig. 276) follow 
directions given for making 
the match strike (Fig. 274). 
The octagonal receptacles 
are made in one piece, direc- 
tions for making which are in 
Lesson 68. Each end is fin- 
ished and bored, and then the 
piece cut in two. As the try- 
square head will not rest 
firmly against the octagon, a 
thin piece is held between 
the head of the try-square and 
the octagon (Fig. 277). 

The parts are held to- 
gether by nailing and gluing. 
Be sure that each part is thor- 
oughly smoothed and sand- 




Fig. 276- Match Safe 



200 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 277 — Lining Around Octagon 



papered before 
putting together. 
Read the di- 
rections for sand- 
papering before 
doing this work, 
for the beauty of 
this piece is in 
perfectly finished 
surfac e s and 
edges. Unless 



everypartissizeofthe 
drawing (Fig. 278) 
and every surface and 
edge straight and 
square you fail to cor- 
rectly answer the 
problem though your 
piece may be usable. 
The piece of sand- 
paperfor the ''strike" 
may be cut from a 
sheet of No. l l / 2 by 
laying the sheet, pa- 
per side up, on a cut- 
ting board and using 
a knife or it may be 
torn as shown in Fig. 
121. 




? Fig. 278 Match 
Safe 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



201 



LESSON 61 

WASTE PAPER BASKET 

The basket shown in Fig. 279 is 10 inches high and 9y 2 
inches across the bottom inside. A larger basket would be 
better for most purposes. 

If no thin stock is at hand the sides may be made from 
^6 -inch stock and split after the surfaces, edges and ends 
have been finished. In 
this work follow direc- 
tions for working the 
first study piece except 
that as each piece is to 
be split you will place 
face-marks on both sur- 
faces and have both 
surfaces true. Read 
Lesson 29 for directions 
for trimming the corners. 

When ready to split 
the pieces draw lines 
entirely around the 
edges, placing the 
gauge first against one 

surface and then against the other. Set the gauge to the fin- 
ished thickness of the pieces. Plan the thickness of the thick 
piece with just enough to waste in the center for sawing and 
smoothing with the plane. 

If after the pieces have been smoothed on both sides you 
find that the face-marks, which should be at the inside, are on 




Fig. 279— Waste Paper Basket 



202 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



the best surfaces, change the face-marks so that the nicer 
surfaces will be at the outside, and retest the edges. 

To make the bottom, work the piece to an exact square of 
proper thickness and then lay off and work the corners. To 
find the point at which to draw the lines for cutting the 
corners draw diagonals and with the compass set to the space 
A-C (Fig. 280) draw the arc, C-B. Set the gauge (pencil) 
for the space B-E and draw lines on each edge (Fig. 146). 
Connect these lines on each surface with knife lines (Fig. 145) 
and saw and plane to these. Be care- 
ful to make each side of the octagon 
of correct length and square with the 
surface, so the side pieces of the 
basket will fit perfectly. 

When the base is complete, place 
the side pieces in position and see if 
they are correct. If they are, locate 
the holes and bore them from the 
outer surface so that if the bit splits 
the surface the defect will be next the 
base. Hold each side in place and mark through the holes for 
the holes in the base. Do not bore these holes too large. 

If the sides are to be laced read directions for boring the 
holes, Lesson 62. After all the holes have been bored 
sandpaper all surfaces ready for the finish and then fasten the 
sides in place. For a cheap basket use nails instead of screws. 
No holes are required for nails in ordinary soft wood. Fancy 
nails may be used over long brads to improve the appearance, 
or long escutcheon pins with neat round heads. 

The top ends may be held by lacing or suitable metal 




A 3 E 

Fig. 280— Laying off Octagon 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



203 



fastenings. Plain pieces as shown in Fig. 279 may be cut 
from copper, brass or silver, or fancy pieces may be made in the 
metal shop. Fancy hinges may be used instead of bent pieces. 
The finish may be applied before or after the parts are 
fastened together, or the piece may be assembled and then 
taken apart for finishing. The nature of the wood and the 
finish used must determine which method to follow. 



LESSON 62 

WASTE PAPER BASKET 

Read all the directions for making Fig. 279 and you will 
have the information necessary for making the bottom and for 
getting out the sides except that required because the sides slant. 

The drawing, 
(Fig. 282) gives you 
the amount of slant. 
for each side, and 
also shows a try- 
square with a tapered 
piece between the 
head and the side 
piece or stave. Ob- 
serve that the slant 
height of the side is 
12 inches and the 
length of the try- 
square head about 
5 inches. If the side 
slants 2 inches in Fig . 2 8 1 — Waste Paper Basket 




204 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



12 inches it will slant just y 2 inch in 3 inches. Because of 
this relation you can plane a piece about 3 inches long and saw 
a slit in one or both ends to slip over the trysquare blade as 

shown in Fig. 243. You 
then measure off on the piece 
3 inches and make the width 
y 2 inch wider at one line 
than at the other. It does 
not matter what the width 
is, but it must be y 2 inch 
wider at one line than at the 
other. If you wish to be 
very accurate in your work, 
you should measure the 3 
inches on the slant height 
and slant length of the piece. 
You can do this by remeas- 
uring the 3 inch space after 
the piece is tapered. It 
will probably be so slight a 
difference as to be imma- 
terial. If the slant were 
great it would be necessary 
to take account of it. This 
will give the angle of the 
side and the try-square and 
block are then used similarly 
to a try-square on square work. If the piece has a saw kerf at 
each end it may be reversed, or two pieces may be used. 

For this basket all the angles may be lined or tested with 




Fig. 282— Waste Paper Basket 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



205 



one piece keeping it always in the same position. If you make 
the bottom first you can vary the width of the staves to corre- 
spond to the 
lengths of the 
sides of the bot- 
tom. The edges 
of the bottom 
should be work- 
ed at right-an- 
gles to the face- 
side and. then 
beveled to fit 
the slanting 
sides. Fig. 283 
shows how to 
hold the try- 
squ ar e and 




Fig. 283 — Try-square on Edge of Base 



block. Dress the pieces 




Fig. 2 8 4— Detail of Lacing 



for the staves on both surfaces, both 
ends and one edge and then lay out 
by measurement from the drawing, 
or else make a pattern from which 
to lay out each piece. 

Finish the corners and then 
bevel both top and bottom ends to 
correspond with the slant of the 
sides using the block and try-square 
at each end. 

The sides may be fastened to- 
gether at the top by lacing. There 
are several ways of lacing corners, 



206 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



Fig. 284 shows one, the ends of the lace being fastened by 
driving a small brad at an angle through the lace and into the 
hole, so that the end is not seen. 

Read Lesson 6 1 for directions for fastening the lower ends 
to the bottom. 

LESSON 63 

WORK BASKET 

There are innumerable variations in this style of basket. It 
may be larger or smaller and various woods may be used. 
Some of the sides may extend below the bottom and thus 
form short legs. Similar sides may be secured around the 
edge of a table top, and may be vertical, though for most 

uses the ob- 
lique are bet- 
ter, making a 
light w ork 
table. Any form 
of taboret may 
be modified to 
suit this pur- 
pose, but such 
a table should 
have light legs 
and rails. In 
making the work basket, follow the directions for making the 
waste paper basket, Fig. 279 or 281. 

To lay out the dodecagon or 12-sided-bottom first lay off a 
hexagon, (Fig. 248). Bisect one of these divisions, (Fig. 286) 
and set the compasses to this space and mark the points for 




Fig. 285 - Work Basket 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



207 




Fig. 286 — Bisecting Side of Hexagon 



the other divisions. Connect these points with straight lines 
completing the 12-sided-figure or dodecagon. 

The fastenings shown in the 
picture at the upper ends of the 
staves were made from links of a 
jack-chain. Three links are re- , 
quired at each place. One ex- 
tends across the space and one at 
each end of the three link fast- 
ening is straightened at one end 
and put through a hole drilled in 
the stave. After the straight end 
has passed through the hole it is so bent that it will remain in 
place. 

LESSON 64 

BOXES 

The successful making of boxes depends very largely upon 
the truing of the ends of the pieces. If you have made a few 

pieces hav- 
ing squar- 
ed ends 
you will 
have no 
trouble in 
making a 
box with 
well fitted 
joints. 
Fig. 287 
Fig.287~-Box is a typical 




208 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 





'"' 1 


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box and if you work carefully, studying each step, you should 
be able to make boxes of any size and style so long as the 

corners are square 
butt joints. 

For the top, bot- 
tom and sides follow 
the directions given 
for the cutting board, 
(Fig. 116). The ends 
of all the pieces are 
first made square. 
The end pieces are 
made in one piece, 
and after both ends 
are squared the piece 

is cut in two bymeas- 
Fig. 288 Nailing End . ,, 

urmg the proper 

length from each end and cutting 
the waste from the center. See 
Fig. 314. 

As the ends of these pieces 
are to form the joints they must 
be true. It is not enough that 
they are square as tested from 
side and edge (Lesson 16), but 
in order to make a good joint the 
edges should be as smooth and 
even as the lines of the knife point. 
Be sure this glossy edge extends 
entirely around each end. The Fig. 289— Testing End 




WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



209 




ends of all the parts may be left square. If any are to be 
rounded, read about rounding edges (Lesson 30). The edge 
of the bottom may be 
made oval, as in Fig. 
287. 

Before the sides 
and ends are nailed 
together, draw two 
gauge lines for use in 
sawing the box apart 
after the top and bot- 
tom are in place. 
These lines should be 
drawn entirely around 
both sides and ends 
In locating these 

lines, allow y& inch to % e inch for saw kerf and planing, depend- 
ing upon how well you can saw and plane. Select the brads 

to be used in 
nailing the 
top, and be 
sure that the 
lines are far 
enough from 
the top so that 
neither saw 
nor plane will 
hit the brads. 
Also select the 
Fig. 291- Transfer) ing Measurement hinges and 



Fig. 290 — Testing End 




210 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



catch. Make the 
these. After these 



border beneath the cover wide enough for 
things have been done draw the lines with 
the spur end of 
the gauge. 

Just when to 
do sandpapering 
on such work 
depends a good 
deal on the tools 
and bench you 
are using. If the 
bench is clean 
and you can keep 
the pieces from 
being marred or 
soiled while put- 
ting them to- 
gether, it is bet- 




Fig. 292— Nailing Brace 



ter to do all the 
sandpapering 
at once before 
doing any nail- 
ing. In this 
case be careful 
not to injure 
any of the 
joints and do 
no sandpaper- 
ing on any 
joint surfaces. 



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z ig. 293 — Adjusting Box Bottom 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 211 

For this box the joint surfaces are the ends and edges of the 
end pieces, the edges of the side pieces and the places against 
which these fit. As you cannot avoid sandpapering these latter 
surfaces, do so as little as you can while finishing the rest of 
the surfaces. 

Another plan is to sandpaper only the inside or face surfaces 
and ends of side pieces and both surfaces of the end pieces, 




Fig. 294 — Clamping Box Bottom 

then after nailing these together sandpaper the outside surfaces 
of the sides. 

Sandpaper the inside surface and ends and edges of the 
bottom, then nail it on. Do the same with the top. After 
the box is ripped in two and the hinges and catch are in place, 
sandpaper the top side of the top. The bottom side of the 
bottom need not be sandpapered. 

In nailing the box together calculate the location of the 
brads and draw a pencil line across the side. Start all the 
brads for one side, (Lesson 21). Also draw a pencil line on 



212 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



the face-side at which to locate the inner surface (the face 
surface), of the end piece. Place the pieces as shown in 
Fig. 288 and drive one brad near the front edge. Examine it 
to see that it is even with the line on the face-side and then 
apply the try-square as shown in Fig. 289. The try-square 
may also be held as shown in Fig. 290. Next nail the piece to 
the other end in the same manner. Be very accurate in 
having the locations of the ends identical. 




Fig. 295— Box in Position for Nailing 

Place the face-edge of the other side against the one which 
has been nailed, (Fig. 291) and mark the location for each 
end. Draw lines across with the try-square and pencil, and 
also lines for the brads on the outside and nail this piece to 
the ends. 

Test the piece with the try-square and if necessary nail a 
diagonal brace on what is to be the top as shown in Fig. 292. 
The brace may be nailed at one end, then after the box is 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



213 



squared, the other end nailed. The box may be tested 
for squareness by measuring from corner to corner with a rule 
or stick. (See Fig. 225.) When both measurements are 
equal the piece is square, providing the ends and sides are of 
equal length. 




Fig. 296— Ripping Box Apm t 



The bottom is the next part to be nailed. Its position is 
located by measuring in from each edge and end. Calculate the 
position of the brads and draw light pencil lines showing their 
location. The lines parallel with the edge should be drawn 
with the pencil end of the gauge and those across the ends 
with pencil and try-square. Drive the brads so their points 



214 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 




Fig. 297— View of Back of Box 



will hinder the bottom slipping, place the bottom on the bench 

and adjust the body of the box upon it, (Fig. 293). Both can 

then be turned over and the brads driven home. 

Another meth- 
od is clamping 
the bottom in 
place by securing 
the lower jaw of a 
clamp in the vise 
— placing the box 
and bottom in the 
c -mp. Tighten 
the clamp but a 
trifle, then adjust 
the parts, and 

when the bottom is in place apply another clamp. (Fig. 294). 
Release the clamp from the vise and turn the box and 

clamps over (Fig. 295). Drive at least one 

brad through the bottom into the edge of each 

side. Drive one or two brads into each end. 
These brads may be driven but a little way 

into the edges and then the bottom removed 

and glue applied to hold it more securely, the 

points of the brads helping to find place and 

keep from slipping. The brads should then be 

driven and set. The securing of the bottom 

will hold the box square and now the brace 

(Fig. 292) can be removed. Then the top 

should be nailed, or nailed and glued, into place in the same 

manner. 



K^ 



Fig. 298 
Sketch of Hinge 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 215 

To rip the box in two, place it in the vise (Fig. 296), the 
same as the piece (Lesson 20), and work very slowly, 
reversing the box the same as a solid piece. Plane the edges 
to a tight joint and then put a clamp on each end of the box 
(Fig. 295), to hold the two parts in place as you nail on the 
hinges and catch. Fig. 287 shows the catch in position. 
There is little need of directions for putting on this style of 
fastenings. They should be carefully located on the joint. It 
is especially necessary that the hinges be in exact line and the 
center of the pins on which the hinges turn be exactly over the 
joint. Figs. 297 and 298 indicate how the hinges are located. 

LESSON 65 

WAGON BOX 

The wagon box follows the same general plan of construc- 
tion indicated in Lesson 64. The corners should be carefully 



Fig. 299— Wagon Box 

nailed, and it will look better if the sides extend beyond the 
ends as in Fig. 287. The rear end of the box may be made 
as shown in Fig 299. 



216 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

As you will wish to use this box on your wagon you will 
plan all dimensions to suit your needs. First lay out the sizes 
you want, making a rough sketch. Then look over the 
material you have and change your plans, if necessary. Make 
a complete drawing before beginning work. Be sure to read 
all the directions for planing, sawing, sandpapering and 
finishing before beginning work, so as to insure the making of 
a nice box. Do not try to do this problem until you have 
solved several simpler ones including the first study piece. 

LESSON 66 

NAIL BOX 

Nail boxes are, of course, varied as to size and number of 
divisions to suit the sizes and varieties of nails to be held. 
For ordinary use the simple butt joints, as shown, are sufficient. 




Fig. 300— Nail Box 

After you have learned to use a larger variety of tools you can 
make nail boxes containing more difficult joints. 

The box shown in Fig. 300 is similar in construction, 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



217 



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-3— 


— 3— 




-3 — 

2 4 ^ 


1 , 1 - 



/*£. 301— Nail Box 



adding partitions and omitting the cover, to that illustrated by 

Fig. 287. By following the directions given in Lesson 64 you 

will no doubt 

make this nail 

box in first class 

shape. If you do 

not want the size 

shown in the 

drawing, Fig. 

301, make a 

drawing to suit 

your wishes. The 

partitions should 

be made at the same time as the ends and all lined for length at 

one time the same as the rails (Fig. 182). You must then work 

exactly to the knife lines. The difficulty is to stop at the line. 

LESSON 67 

NAIL BOX 

Before attempting to make a box of this type you should 
make one similar to Fig. 287 or Fig. 300. This will help you 
to understand how this box is made. Follow the same 
directions for making the sides and bottom. 

The ends are made so that the grain of the wood is 
vertical instead of horizontal as in Fig. 287. In shaping the 
ends you follow the same method as in making the other 
pieces except that you follow the directions in Lesson 29 for 
cutting off the corners. 

The drawing, Fig. 303, shows a partition beneath the 
handle lengthwise of the box. This may be omitted or it may 



218 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



be placed crosswise of the box as in Fig. 300, or two or more 
partitions may be used. These may be all of the same height 




Fig. 302 Nail Box 



or they may be 
made of different 
heights. 

The handle is 
made in the same 
way as the cylin- 




Fig. 303— Nail Box 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 219 

der, Lesson 68. It is slipped into the ends before they are 
nailed to the sides. A brad may be driven into the handle to 
prevent turning. 

LESSON 68 

CYLINDER 

The making of a cylinder by planing is not a difficult task 
if you are careful to first make the piece exactly square in 
section, then octagonal and continue to increase the number 
of sides systematically, being sure all sides are alike before 
proceeding to the next larger number. 

After the piece has been made an exact square by 
following the directions for planing and testing (Lessons 4 to 
11) make it into an octagon. 




Fig. 304 — Cylinder 

To lay off the octagon place the piece on the bench and 
hold the rule on it as shown in Fig. 305. Turn the rule to 
such an angle as will use ten of the regular divisions of the 
scale in the width of the surface. If the piece is x / 2 inch wide 
you can turn the rule until 10 of the Me-inch divisions will 
extend exactly across. If it is 1 inch across, the rule should be 
turned to use 10 of the ^-inch divisions. By this method 



220 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

you have an easy way of getting three-tenths of the width, for 
after placing the rule so that you have ten equal divisions, you 
can mark off from one edge, three of these divisions, or 
three-tenths of the width. 

Set the pencil end of the marking gauge and line each 
corner of the piece. Hold the gauge against each corner in 
succession without regard to the face-marks. Roll the piece 
until each side has one line upon it, then reverse the piece 
end for end and draw the other four lines. 




Fig. 3 05— Dividing to Get Three-tenths of Width 

These lines, if you have done the work properly, will be 
the guides for planing the octagon. Plan to leave the lines, 
planing only to them. There are two reasons for doing this, 
first, it makes easy the finding of any error in your work and, 
second, the fraction, 3 /io, is a little too large. 

A better spacing to use on larger pieces is seven twenty- 
fourths, but for small pieces a three-tenths division is better. 
Yet another method of making an octagon is shown in Lesson 6 1 . 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



221 



To plane the corners off, the piece may be held in the 
vice as shown in Fig. 306 or against the stop as shown in 
Fig. 307. Place an X on each surface between the gauge 




Fig. 306 — Planing an Octagon 

lines so as to easily distinguish the original four sides after the 
corners have been planed off. 

Test every side by measuring with the rule, holding it in 




Fig. 3 7 — Planing an Octagon 



222 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

the same manner as in measuring the chamfer (Fig. 86). All 
the sides should be of the same width. If they are not, look 
carefully to find where the mistake is and rectify it if 
you can. 

Test the octagon by holding the trysquare the same as in 
testing a chamfer, Fig. 84. Any variations in the octagon 
will show in the cylinder, therefore be particular about making 
each side of the octagon exactly correct. (Fig. 308). 

Next, plane off each corner of the octagon, making a piece 
of 16 equal sides. If this does not make the piece as nearly 
round as you can plane it, plane it to a 32-sided piece. The 




Fig. 308- Octagon 

larger the piece the more sides you can make with the plane 
before it appears to be round. For small pieces, such as 
dowel rods, 16 sides is usually enough; for larger pieces you 
may be able to make 64 or even 128 nicely formed surfaces. 
The longer you continue making regularly formed angles the 
better cylinder you will make and the quicker you will 
complete it. 

After you have made as many regular sides as you can, 
look for any irregularities and plane them down. This part of 
the work should be well done, for no amount of sandpapering 
will take the place of careful planing. 

After the planing is finished, sandpaper the cylinder as 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



223 



directed in Lesson 25 . Be careful to keep it straight to the ends. 
In cutting off the ends of a cylinder it is well to clamp it 






Fig. 309 — Sawing End of Cylinder 

between two pieces as shown in Fig. 309 and draw lines on 
the pieces to saw by. Saw very slowly to avoid slivering. 

LESSON 69 

TOWEL ROLLER 

Fig. 310 illustrates the towel roller and Fig. 3 1 1 is a mechani- 
cal drawing of it. The size and shape may be modified to suit. 




Fig. 3 1 0— Towel Roller 



224 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



The back or main part requires the same working as the 
bench-hook. 



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The ends or bracket pieces may be made in the same 

manner as the brackets (Fig. 163). 

The new features in the 
construction are the roller and 
the slot into which the roller 
fits . The directions for mak- 
ing the roller are found in 
Lesson 68. After the roller 
has been made holes are 
bored in each end and hard- 
wood dowels inserted to form 
the bearings. To find the 
center, measure across the 
end in several directions, each 
time marking the center. 

Bore the hole as directed in Lesson 28 on boring. 

To make the slot in one of the brackets, after a hole has 

been bored in from the side at the point for the bearing, bore a 




Fig. 3 1 2— Boring Slot 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 225 

hole in from the top end meeting the hole which is to form the 
bearing. (Fig. 312). Bore this hole so that little material 
will need to be removed, in addition to the boring, to complete 
the slot. The slot can then be finished with a knife. 

Fasten the brackets in place by nailing and gluing. Be 
sure that each part is properly sandpapered before the whole is 
put together. 

LESSON 70 

REVOLVING BOOK RACK 

This is an easy article to make if you can do good planing. 
If you have made the study piece and bench-hook properly you 




Fig. 3 1 3 — Revolving Book Rack 

can, with careful work, make this book rack. Do not attempt 
it until you are able to control your plane, for if you attempt to 
square the ends or joint the edges of the thin pieces before you 
have a thorough understanding of the elementary principles of 



226 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



planing you may form bad habits that will cause much trouble. 
If you make one of the waste paper baskets first, you will 
receive a larger benefit from making the book rack. 

The base is made in the same manner as the octagonal 
bottom of the basket (Lesson 61). For directions for cham- 
fering it, review directions in Lesson 18. The bottom of the 
revolving part is made the same as the cutting board. Be sure 
to make this piece true and square in every particular, for 
unless it is correct the sides may not fit properly. 




Fig. 3 1 4 — Piece for Ends of Book Rack 



The ends are easiest made by dressing up two pieces, each 
long enough for two ends, finishing them as in Fig. 314 and 
then cutting them in two. This will be much easier than 
attempting to work each end from a short piece. If you have 
a piece which is very straight and out of wind and long enough 
for all four, you can dress it to size and finish two ends, cut 
them off and then finish the other two. This is the quickest 
way if you have a piece sufficiently straight. 

The two cross strips should be worked as one wide piece, 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 227 

the ends squared and rounded (See Fig. 149) and then ripped 
apart and the remaining edges jointed. 

Lay off and bore the hole in the center of the octagon and 
countersink for the screw head. If you use a % inch bit it 
will be the correct size for the shank of a No. 12 screw. Find 
the center on the bottom side of the square piece and bore a 
hole for the threaded part of the screw. Plan to use a screw 
that will reach nearly through the piece. If the pieces are 
% inch and y 2 inch and the countersink is such that the head 
is barely below the surface, al^ inch screw will be the correct 
length. By making the countersink deeper a 1 inch screw can 
be used. The head must be enough below the surface to 
allow for the screw turning without injuring the surface on 
which the base rests. 

Lay off and bore holes for the screws in the upright pieces. 
These should be for No. 8 by 1^ inch round head screws. 
After the holes have been bored, place the piece in position 
and mark the places on the edge for the screws. Number 
the ends and the bottom so that they can be returned to the 
same places. Bore the holes and insert the screws, for this 
you will need the automatic drill (Fig. 187). 

Drill two fine holes in each end of each cross piece for the 
brads. Nail these to place, testing the sides with the try- 
square to see that they are at right angles to the base. 

This Rack may be made of soft wood or any cabinet wood. 
It may be finished in any of the ordinary finishes. If varnished 
a felt washer about 3 inches in diameter should be placed 
around the screw, above the base. For other finishes a piece 
of thick paper will be sufficient. 

The base of Fig. 304 is 12 inches across and yi inch thick. 



228 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

The square revolving base is the same size and y 2 inch thick. 
The ends are 5 ^ inches long, 5 % inches wide and 3/ 8 inch 
thick. The cross rails are 13^ inches long, ^ inch wide 
y A inch thick. 

The sizes given make a very nice rack but may be 
changed to sizes suitable for 8vo. or larger books. The same 
plan of construction can be used in making a rack of two 
shelves, one above the other. 

Another and simpler modification is to use but two vertical 
pieces. These should be wide enough for two rows of books. 
They should be fastened to the ends of the lower piece to 
keep it from warping. 

To support the ends and furnish a division between the two 
rows of books, rods are placed across the center and extended 
through the sides to receive pins, as in Fig. 235, or a board may 
be fitted between the uprights and held in place with screws. 

The directions for making this book rack and Fig. 209 
include all the essential information for making a variety of 
simple racks. Ends similar to Fig. 314 may be used in place 
of the frame ends in Fig. 209. They would then be made of 
24 inch stock and held in place by screws passing up through 
the bottom into the lower ends of the end pieces or supports. 
The base for such a rack may be plain rectangular or cham- 
fered around the upper surface. The end supports may be 
the same width as the base or a little narrower. They must be 
narrower if the edges of the base are chamfered. 

The end supports may be fastened to the ends of the base 
similar to an end in fig. 313. As there would be no cross rod 
to hold the ends in place larger screws must be used. The 
ends may extend below the base and form legs. 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



229 



LESSON 71 

SHOE BOX 

Fig. 3 1 5 illustrates a box suitable for shoes . Fig. 316 gives 
the sizes. Carefully study Lessons 38, 39, and 40 before 
beginning this box. 

The four pieces which form the sides and ends are the first 
ones to make and should be carefully dressed out of wind and 




Fig. 315— Shoe Box 

squared on edges and ends. To bevel the ends of the side 
piece, follow the directions on page 144 (Fig. 198). The 
nailing together is done in the same manner as the nailing of 
the rails for the taboret (Lesson 40). Dowels may be used 
as shown in Fig. 200. 



230 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



Although no glue blocks are shown in the corners, they 
may be used as in Fig. 199. Plane the rough surface of the 
block by holding the piece 
against the stop, Fig 307, 
or tack two triangular 
pieces on a board as shown 
in Fig. 317. If holes are 
to be bored for screwing 
or nailing on the legs do 
not put any nails into the 
glue-blocks until all the 
boring at the corners has 



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been completed. Remember to leave the glue-blocks short 

enough to allow the bottom to rest against their lower ends. 

To make the bottom, dress one surface, one edge and one 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



231 



end. See that the finished corner fits a corner of the box and 
mark so that you can always place it in the same position. 
Mark the length of the bottom at each edge, draw a line 
to these marks and then saw and plane to the line. Mark the 
width in the same manner and rip and plane the edge. 

Make the legs as directed for Fig. 180 or Fig. 195. If 
tapered they should be first made straight and then tapered. 
(See Lesson 50). 

The top is of two pieces of equal thickness hinged as in Fig. 
318. 1 he width of the two parts is not material, except that the 
narrow piece 
should be wide 
enough to re- 
ceive one end 
of a hinge. 
Some hinges 
are made with 
the two pans 
differing in 
length, there- 
fore it is best to procure the hinges and fastenings before making 
the drawing. Instead of the catch shown in Fig. 319 a hasp 
and pad lock may be used. Do not attempt to use any hinges 
or locks that necessitate the cutting of the wood to fit them to 
place. The use of such hinges and fastenings belongs to the 
more advanced problems. To hinder the lid opening so far as 
to strain the hinges a chain is fastened to it and the end or 
front side of the box. Jack chain can be used for this purpose. 
It should be securely fastened or it will soon come loose. 

This box may be modified in many ways to adapt it to 




Fig. J I 7 — Planing in Trough 



232 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



other uses. The sizes may be changed to those of a large 
chest, or to those of a jewel box. Ornamental corner pieces 
may be substituted for the legs, or the corners may be left 
square and covered with ornamental metal work. If the corner 

is trimmed as 
in Fig. 315 
and only a thin 
piece used in 
place of the 
legs a one 
piece top may 
be used. The 
sides may be 
rounded and 
extend beyond 
the ends the 
same as Fig. 
287. This 
would require 
a longer top. 
The bottom 
would be the 
same as in Fig. 
316. 

If you make 
a large box you must be careful to use dry lumber. Some 
boards will warp or twist much more than others. Try to get 
those that will remain straight. You can get some idea of 
what boards will warp and what ones will not by examining 
them in the pile or by laying them out where you can watch them. 




Fig. 3 1 8— Shoe Box 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



233 



LESSON 72 

TABORET 

These taborets, Fig. 319 and Fig. 322, show forms of 
construction which may be applied to a large variety of tables 
and taborets and similar articles. Before attempting to make 
these you should have learned to plane, saw and bore holes. 

The top maybe octagonal, 
as shown in Fig. 319, or 
square, Fig. 320, or hexa- 
gonal. The block into which 
the rails are fastened is of the 
same shape as the top. The 
size and number of rails for 
each leg may vary. 

The legs of Fig. 319 may 
be fastened to the top with 
dowels, as shown, or with two 
round head blued screws in 
each leg. Directions are 
found in the general direc- 
tions for using screws and in 
Lessons 38 and 39. 

To locate dowels draw a 
line across each leg at the 

point which will be opposite the center of the edge of the top, 
also mark the center of width of the leg. Locate the center in 
length of the edge of the top and place this point opposite the 
center line on the leg (Fig. 321). Make a mark with the 
point of the knife for each dowel, marking on the line which 




/=/>. 319 — Taboret 



234 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



is on the leg and that on the edge of the top. 
J 




Fig. 320—Taboet 



With knife and 
try-square extend the 
marks on the edge across 
the center line. At the 
points where these lines 
cross and at the line on 
the legs the holes for the 
dowels should be bored. 

Bore the holes into 
the edge of the top about 
two inches, and into the 
legs as far as you can 
without leaving a mark 
♦If k- from the spur of the bit. 
Lesson 35 gives quite 
full information regard- 
ing dowelling. 

Try the parts to- 
gether and if they are 
correct take them apart 
and smooth them ready 
for the stain or finish. 
See Lessons 25 and 36. 

Glue the dowels into 
the legs first; straighten 
them carefully and allow 
them to dry. Then glue 
the cross rails or spindles 
into the legs and center 
block and at the same 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



235 



time glue the legs to the top. Look carefully for wind and test 
thoroughly with the try-square at both top and cross rails. 

Glue-blocks may be used where the legs join the top, the 
ends of blocks being well smoothed. They may be nailed or 
only glued and clamped. 

In all your designing or modifying of the given designs 
you should be careful to consider the matter of strength. This 
is controlled not only by the sizes of the parts, but also by the 
methods of joining. Before making any radical changes in 
the design you should study thoroughly all the forms of joining 
given in the text. 
This will include 
dowelling, blind 
screw (Fig. 171), 
nailing, gluing, 
blued head 
screws, round 
joint, pinned 
joint, etc. Each 

of these methods has its advantages and limitations. It is for 
you to learn the features of each and then make use of those 
best suited to your project. Do not consider your drawing 
complete when you have only the outline of each part, but 
plan every joint and show in the drawing how it will be con- 
structed. Your best method of determining the sizes of the 
joints, nails or screws to use is to study those given and 
determine the sizes in your project by comparison. Leave no 
designing to be done while you are at work making the tab- 
oret or other article or you will fail to get the largest benefit 
from the work. 




Fig. 32 1 —Marking for Dowels 



236 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



LESSON 73 

TABORET 

This problem is a review on planing surfaces and ends 
(Lessons 1 to 28), working angles (Lessons 49 and 62) and the 
making and use of spindles (Lessons 42 to 45). 

The top may be square or octagonal and the legs may be 
set as in Fig. 322 or Fig. 323. By comparing this design with 

Fig. 319 you will under- 
stand that it is similar in 
plan of construction, the 
chief difference being 
the use of parts not at 
right angles. By study- 
ing this design and com- 
paring it with others you 
will be able to work out 
new designs from such 
right angle constructions 
as Figs. 203, 209, 232, 
256, etc. Notice that 
in all these constructions 
the angle is on but one 
side of the piece. This is 
as difficult a problem as 
you ought to attempt at this time. A change from four to three, 
five or six legs in problems similar to Figs. 319 or 322 is pos- 
sible without meeting any problems for which you have no 
instructions. The glue blocks to which the legs are fast- 
ened should be first secured to the ends of the legs by either 




Fig. 322 — Taboret 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



237 



gluing and nailing or screwing. They are then dressed on 
the side which fits against the top to the exact angle required, 

and the holes bored for screws 
for fastening to the top. 

Lines should be drawn on 
the top for the outside surface 
of the legs and also for the 
edges. Make the center block 
and spindles. Glue them to- 
gether. 

Bore holes in the legs and 





Fig. 323 — Taboret 



insert the spindles. Place the legs in place on the inverted top 
and test each angle carefully. Adjust the legs to the lines on 



238 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



the top, if you can, and if not, make such variations as are nec- 
essary to bring the legs out of wind and to the proper angle. 

Mark the positions for holes for screws in the top, separate 
the pieces and bore the holes, and then smooth and sandpaper 
all the parts. 

In clamping, first force the spindles to place and then 
quickly insert the screws. After the screws are in place 
adjust the joints at the spindle ends and finish tightening the 
screws. 

LESSON 74 



LAMP STAND 



This lamp stand (Fig. 




Fig. 324 — Lamp Stand 



324) is an advanced study in 
planing, chamfering and making 
glue joints, and should be pre- 
ceded by all the work to 
Lesson 20. 

The beauty of the stand de- 
pends upon perfect finish, and 
exact shaping of edges and 
chamfers. It is not difficult if 
you understand the work, but 
cannot be well done by piece- 
meal, puttering methods. 

Each piece should be made 
according to the drawing, (Fig. 
325) or to a drawing of your own, 
if you prefer to change the de- 
sign. Many changes of design 
are possible which require the 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



239 



use of no tools not used in making this. In making the col- 
umn, glue two pieces to one side (Fig. 326) and then dress 
them to a taper that will allow of the proper thickness for the 
remaining side. You will find help in making this column by 
the study of directions for the column 
in Lesson 41. 

In squaring the ends use a block 
on the head of your try-square the same 
as in working the angles in Lessons 49 
and 62. 

The parts are fastened together with 
screws. These screws should be used 
in the base of the column, four in the 
bottom board and three in the column 
top. After the top is secured to the 
column the thin piece is glued on, cov- 
ering the screw heads. 

After all the parts are made and 
fastened together they should be taken 
apart, except the pieces on top of the 
column, and sandpapered. Read 
Lesson 25 before attempting to use 
the sandpaper. 

Some of the changes which can be 
made are an increase or decrease of 
the sizes, keeping the proportions the 
same, a change in the outline by using another form of orna- 
menting the corners, the making of all the parts octagonal, or 
of some other outline instead of rectangular. Sometimes cross- 
arms are fitted to the column to support the shade, or the 




Fig. 325— Lamp Stand 



240 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

frame of shade is made of wood. Such constructions are 
not most suitable for such pieces. It is better to make both 




Fig. 326 — Gluing up Column 

the shade frame and its supports, or attachments to the column, 
of metal. 

LESSON 75 

UMBRELLA STAND 

There is little about the making of this umbrella stand (Fig. 
327) with which you are not familiar except the legs. These 
are the first parts to make, as they require clamping, and you 
can then work on the other parts while the legs are in the 
clamps. 

In making the legs, after the stock has been cut to rough 
length, joint a side and edge of each piece. The side first 
jointed will be the inside of the leg and therefore you must 
plan so that the best part of the piece will be at the back side. 
The edge first jointed will be the outside edge on the wide 
piece. The edge which fits against the wide piece will be the 
face edge of the narrow piece. Plan so that the best surfaces 
will be where you want them to be. 

Glue the pieces together before tapering them. In order 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



24 



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to hold them easily while gluing, drive about four brads along 
each corner. Start these brads before applying the glue so 
that after the glue is on the surfaces the brads will re-enter 
their places and assist in adjusting the corner. Two legs may 

be clamped at a time, as shown 
in Fig. 329. As these pieces 
are thin and easily sprung you 



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Fig. 327— Umbrella Stand 



Fig. 328 -Umbrella Stand 



must use plenty of clamps. The next step is to taper each piece 
of each leg. Mark the width at each end and with a straight- 
edge draw a line as shown in Fig. 330. Plane, or saw and 
plane, to this line. 

The rails for the umbrella rack are made in two sets of four 



242 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



each. By completing the drawing (Fig. 328) you can learn why 
the rails differ in length. These rails may be made by following 
either of the methods given for making the rails for Fig. 180. 

As there are 
to be four pieces 
of a length, it is 
essential that you 
be very careful 
about your end 
planing. You 
should not at- 
tempt to do the 
work until you 
have learned to 
end plane on 
larger ends. 

Nail the four legs into two groups, testing thoroughly for 
wind (Fig. 189) and squareness. They may require clamping 
as shown in Fig. 331. After each pair is nailed and glued 
and dry, nail the two pairs together. These will likely also 
require clamping. 



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Fig. 329— Clamping Legs 




Fig. 330— Lining Taper 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 243 

The square pans for the bottom may be made of copper or 
of cast iron as shown in Fig. 251. If of cast iron, a pattern 
is made and the pan cast in the usual way. 

This stand may be modified by changing the sizes of the 
various pieces, or by using more or ornamental cross rails. 
The posts may extend above the top rail or they may be solid 




Fig. 331 — Clamping Rails to Legs 

and the rails pass around them. The corners and rails may be 
secured by ornamental wrought nails, or held entirely with 
glue. This latter plan should be used if the stand is of hard 
wood, especially if mahogany. 

Study the designs Figs. 250 and 252 and then try to make 
a new design. 

LESSON 76 

TABLE 

This table (Fig. 332) is quite difficult because of the glue 
joints in the legs. The construction at the corners of the 
frame is shown in Fig. 333. The legs, which are the first 



244 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



parts made, are worked the same as those for Fig. 327. 
Another plan which is often used is to select stock wide 







'1 



Fig. 332 - Table 

enough for a leg by lining and ripping as shown in Fig. 334. 
Be careful to plan the ripping so that the sides will face 
correctly when put together. One face 
and both edges should be jointed be- 
fore the piece is ripped. 



All four legs may be clamped at once by placing 
two large and two small ends each way. Start three or 
four brads into the edge and place the piece in posi- 
tion. Drive the brads into the other _. 00 „ „ ., 

Fig. 333— Detail 
piece enough to make sure that they of Leg and Rails 



i 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



245 



will hold the piece from slipping, but not far enough to hinder sep- 
arating the pieces for applying glue. Test the joint on the inside 
with the try-square at several places as shown in Fig. 335. 
Separate them and apply glue and then clamp them. 



/ 



Fig. 334 — Piece Lined for Rippii:, 



The rails are made in the same manner as other small 
pieces. Clamp each pair together and line them so that those 
for each set will be of equal length. 

In putting the rails and legs together, nail and glue each 
joint. First secure the end pieces, making two pairs of legs, 
Fig. 332 and then fasten 
the pairs together. The 
rails should be sandpa- 
pered before they are 
put in place. The top 
is made and fastened to 
the frame the same as 
in the taborets. 

The design may be 
modified by changing 
the dimensions, for this 
method of construction 
is applicable to tables of Fig. 335— Testing Joint 




246 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

any size. In this lesson the stock is y 2 inch thick. The top 
is 23x39 inches. The legs are 28 inches long and 3 inches 
wide at the top and 2 inches wide at the bottom. The rails 
are 4 inches wide and 35 inches and 18 inches long. A table 
with a top 20x36 inches makes a very good writing table for 
school work. Larger sizes should be of % inch instead of y 2 
inch stock. Reduced to 10 inches square by 16 inches high 
the frame is suitable for a taboret. 

If this design is well executed and finished in hard wood, 
it makes a very handsome and serviceable table. 

LESSON 77 

SLED 

The question is not "how to make a sled," but "how to 
make a sled without attempting some problem of tool usage 
not to be undertaken at this time." This sled (Fig. 336) is 




Fig. 336— Sled 

so planned as to be serviceable and yet require only simple 
problems in construction. The drawing, Fig. 337, gives the 
dimensions of Fig 336. 

Before undertaking this problem you should have made at 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 



247 



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least the first study piece and the bench-hook. Remember 
that you are studying, and try to learn all you can while 
making the sled. 

Examine the picture and the drawing and try to discover 
why each part is so made. After you determine 
the reasons for making this sled in this manner 
and of this size, go over each part of the plan 
and see if the reasons for this size or form hold 
good for making a sled for your own use. Do 
you need a sled as long, as high or as strong? 
Perhaps you will need to 
make your sled much 
stronger; if so, what changes 
should be made. 

The runners may be 
made first. Be sure to make 
them smooth on all surfaces . 
The curve should be drawn 
free-hand either on paper 
and the runner marked 
from it, or on one runner 
and after this one is formed 
the other marked from it. 
Study Lesson 32 and you 
will have all the directions 
you require for planing the 
curves. 

The beams are simply 

straight pieces of rectan- 
gular section. They must 



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248 WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 

be well made, with edges and surfaces true, for if in wind or 
not square you may have trouble in squaring the parts when 
you put the pieces together. The beams may be worked 
in one piece and then ripped apart, as the rails or legs for 
Fig. 181. Be sure to make the ends square and smooth for 
it will add much to the appearance of the sled. 

For the triangular brace strips make pieces in the same 
manner as the glue blocks, Lesson 38. They should be of 
wood free from checks or shakes, and not liable to split. 

















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Fig. 338- NaiWg Brace Blocks 

These blocks are to keep the runners square with the beams 
and often have to resist considerable strain when the sled turns 
or tips over. They should be thoroughly fastened to the 
runners as well as to the beams and braces (Fig. 338). 

The top board may be plain square or with corners cut off. 
The runners should be of stout wood, carefully made and 
securely fastened. 

Before putting the parts together read about screws and 
how to use them. Fasten the beams onto the runners, then 



WOODWORK FOR THE GRADES 249 

the blocks into place; next fasten the braces and finally the 
top board and raves. 

The sled is usable without iron shoes, but will slip easier 
if a strip of iron is fastened on the lower edge of each runner. 
Thin hoop-iron can be used for this purpose and is held in 
place with nails, though flat band-iron, half round or half oval 
iron, thick enough to receive countersunk holes for flat head 
wood screws is far better. 

The curve at the front end of the runner may include the 
block and rave. This will not be as strong a construction and 
should not be used unless there is an iron shoe to extend up 
over the end and fasten to the top of the rave. 



INDEX 



Adjusting Flane 20 

Arc 117 

Automatic Drill 136 

Ax 15 

Back Saw 60 

Bench Hook 65, 66 

Bench Hook Sides .... 74 

Bisecting Hexagon 207 

Bit 10, 107 

Blind Screw 126 

Blotter Pad 189 

Book Rack 151, 164, 168, 172, 225 
Boring .... 107, 109, 135, 145 

Boring at Angle 174 

Box 207, 232 

Brackets 120 

Brads 8 

Bread Board no 

Chair 186 

Chamfering 75, 76, 191 

Chest 232 

Circle 178 

Clamping 

145,149,163,182,186,211,242,243 

Compasses 178 

Cord Hinge 1S3 

Countersink n 

Counting Board 105 

Cross Cut Saw 16 

Cross Planing 94 



Curve, Working of . . .117, 189 

Cutting Board 92 

Cylinder 219 

Design 13 

Dodecagon 207 

Doweling 123, 143, 233 

Drawing Circle 117,178 

Drawing 67 

Drawing Gauge Lines . . .46, 49 

Drilling Holes 135 

End Planing 69 

Escutcheon Pins 197 

Face-Edge . 38, 40 

Face-Marks 37, 42 

Face-Surface 37 

Facing Strips 150 

Finishes n 

First Edge 40 

Flat Head Screw 9 

Footstool 122, 155 

Framing Square 29 

Gauge Spur 43 

Gimlet Bit 10 

Glue Block .... 138, 145, 230 

Gluing 240 

Grain of Wood 26 

Grinding 91 

Hammer 82 

Hand Saw 77 

Hexagon 176 



INDEX— Continued 



Hinge .... 183, 185, 214, 215 
Inspecting Material .... 17 

Jack Plane 19, 33 

Jointing Edge .... 40, 49, 68 

Jointing Ends 69, 144 

Keeping Plane Sharp .... 38 

Knife 54 

Lamp Stand 238 

Lacing 205 

Laying off Spaces 53» 55 

Lining at Angle III, 120, 174, 245 

Lining Corner 111,146 

Lining Ends 132, 14 1 

Lining Legs 141 

Lining around Octagon . . . 200 

Lining Taper 242 

Looking for Wind . . . . 36, 137 

Lumber 15 

Machine Marks 18 

Magazine Rack 166 

Mantle Shelf 119 

Marking Gauge 43 

Marking by Superposition . .157 

Match Safe 199 

Match Strike 198 

Measuring Width With Rule . 50 

Milled Thumbnut 21 

Nails 7 

Nailing . . 82, 171, 208, 210, 248 
Nail Box 216, 217 



Nail Set 85 

Needle 162 

Octagon 202,222 

Octagonal End 153 

Outline 64 

Oval Edges 121 

Paint 12 

Pan for Umbrella Rack . . .179 

Pedestal 147 

Pencil Gauge 43 

Pine 16 

Plane 19 

Planer (See Surfacer) 

Plane Bit 20, 87, 88 

Plane Parts 20 

Planing . . 20,23,25,29,33,36,49,51 

94,112,115,118,144,146 

167,189,190,203,221,231 

Planing Ends . , 69 

Plant Stand 176 

Plate Rack 170 

Pocket Knife 54 

Pocket Rule . . 44 

Polishing 190 

Publisher's Note 3 

Radius 117 

Rails 130 

Reed Footstool 155 

Revolving Book Rack .... 225 
Ripping . . 78,81,118,132,139,213 



II 



INDEX— Continued 



Rip Saw 

Rounding Edges 

Round Head Screws , . . , 

Rule 

Sandpapering . . 95, 96, 102, 

Sandpaper 

Sandpaper Block 

Saw 

Sawing 60, 63, 78, 

Sawing End of Cylinder . . . 

Scale 

Scouring Box 

Scraping 127, 

Screen 

Screws t . . . . 

Screw Driver 

Setting Gauge 44, 

Setting Nail 

Setting Trysquare ..... 

Sharpening Plane 

Shelf . . . . . . . 1 14, 117, 

Shellac 

Shellacing 

Shoe Box . , ; 

Sighting Bottom of Plane . . 
Sighting Lengthwise .... 

Sighting for Wind 

Sled 

Smooth riane 



77 Squaring Ends ... 69, 131, 144 

113 Stain 12 

9 Straight Edge 31, 32 

44 Steel Framing Square .... 29 

103 Stropping Plane Bit .... 91 
97 Superposition . 157 

104 Surfacer 16 

60 Swing Board 121 

112 Table 243 

223 Taboret . 130,139,142,162,233,236 

57 Tapering 178 

191 Tearing Sandpaper 97 

129 Testing 28, 30, 41, 56, 158, 161, 245 

183 Thread Screen 181 

9 Towel Roller 223 

10 Trysquare .... 28,73, I0 9, J 74 
124 Umbrella Rack . .179, 1 So, 240 

54 Varnishing 12 

55 Wire Edge 89 

86 Wagon Box ........ 215 

119 Waste Paper Basket . . 201, 203 

11 Weaving 161 

190 Whisk Broom Holder .... 195 

229 White Shellac , 11 

21 Whittling 152, 154 

30 Whetting Plane Bit 87 

34 Win d 34 

246 Withdrawing Nail ■ * . . . 85 

19 Work Basket 206 

III 



JUN 10 1312 



